In the NAS, there are approximately 1,105 VOR stations, 916 NDB stations, and 1,194 ILS installations, including 25 LOC-type directional aids (LDAs), 11 simplified directional facilities (SDFs), and 235 LOC only facilities. As time progresses, it is the intent of the FAA to reduce navigational dependence on VOR, NDB, and other ground-based NAVAIDs and, instead, to increase the use of satellite-based navigation.
To expedite the use of RNAV procedures for all instrument pilots, the FAA has begun an aggressive schedule to develop RNAV procedures. As of 2010, the number of RNAV/ GPS approaches published in the NAS numbered 10,212 – with additional procedures published every revision cycle. While it had originally been the plan of the FAA to begin decommissioning VORs, NDBs, and other ground-based NAVAIDs, the overall strategy has been changed to incorporate a majority dependence on augmented satellite navigation while maintaining a satisfactory backup system. This backup system includes retaining all CAT II and III ILS facilities and close to one-half of the existing VOR network.
Each approach is provided obstacle clearance based on the FAA Order 8260.3 TERPS design criteria as appropriate for the surrounding terrain, obstacles, and NAVAID availability. Final approach obstacle clearance is different for every type of approach but is guaranteed from the start of the final approach segment to the runway (not below the MDA for non-precision approaches) or MAP, whichever occurs last within the final approach area. It is dependent upon the pilot to maintain an appropriate flight path within the boundaries of the final approach area and maintain obstacle clearance.There are numerous types of instrument approaches available for use in the NAS including RNAV (GPS), ILS, MLS, LOC, VOR, NDB, SDF, and radar approaches. Each approach has separate and individual design criteria, equipment requirements, and system capabilities.
Visual and Contact Approaches
To expedite traffic, ATC may clear pilots for a visual approach in lieu of the published approach procedure if flight conditions permit. Requesting a contact approach may be advantageous since it requires less time than the published IAP and provides separation from IFR and special visual flight rules (SVFR) traffic. A contact or visual approach may be used in lieu of conducting a SIAP, and both allow the flight to continue as an IFR flight to landing while increasing the efficiency of the arrival.
Visual Approaches
When it is operationally beneficial, ATC may authorize pilots to conduct a visual approach to the airport in lieu of the published IAP. A pilot, or the controller, can initiate a visual approach. Before issuing a visual approach clearance, ATC must verify that the pilot has the airport, or a preceding aircraft that they are to follow, in sight. Once the pilot reports the airport, or aircraft, in sight, the pilot is responsible to maintain safe altitudes and separation from other aircraft. If the pilot reports the airport in sight but does not see the aircraft they are assigned to follow, ATC may still issue the visual approach clearance but the controller maintains responsibility for aircraft separation (including wake turbulence separation). Once pilots report the aircraft in sight, they assume the responsibilities for their own separation and wake turbulence avoidance.
A visual approach is an ATC authorization for an aircraft on an IFR flight plan to proceed visually to the airport of intended landing; it is not an IAP. Also, there is no missed approach segment. An aircraft unable to complete a visual approach must be handled as any other go-around and appropriate separation must be provided. A vector for a visual approach may be initiated by ATC if the reported ceiling at the airport of intended landing is at least 500 feet above the MVA/MIA and the visibility is 3 SM or greater. At airports without weather reporting service, there must be reasonable assurance through area weather reports and PIREPs that descent and approach to the airport can be made visually, and the pilot must be informed that weather information is not available.
The visual approach clearance is issued to expedite the flow of traffic to an airport. It is authorized when the ceiling is reported or expected to be at least 1,000 feet AGL and the visibility is at least 3 SM. Pilots must remain clear of the clouds at all times while conducting a visual approach. At an airport with a control tower, pilots may be cleared to fly a visual approach to one runway while others are conducting VFR or IFR approaches to another parallel, intersecting, or converging runway. Also, when radar service is provided, it is automatically terminated when the controller advises pilots to change to the tower or advisory frequency. While conducting a visual approach, the pilot is responsible for providing safe obstacle clearance.
Contact Approaches
If conditions permit, pilots can request a contact approach, which is then authorized by the controller. A contact approach cannot be initiated by ATC. This procedure may be used instead of the published procedure to expedite arrival, as long as the airport has a SIAP the reported ground visibility is at least 1 SM, and pilots are able to remain clear of clouds with at least one statute mile flight visibility throughout the approach. Some advantages of a contact approach are that it usually requires less time than the published instrument procedure, it allows pilots to retain the IFR clearance, and provides separation from IFR and SVFR traffic. On the other hand, obstruction clearances and VFR traffic avoidance becomes the pilot’s responsibility. Unless otherwise restricted, the pilot may find it necessary to descend, climb, or fly a circuitous route to the airport to maintain cloud clearance or terrain/ obstruction clearance.
The main differences between a visual approach and a contact approach are: a pilot must request a contact approach, while a visual approach may be assigned by ATC or requested by the pilot; and a contact approach may be approved with one mile visibility if the flight can remain clear of clouds, while a visual approach requires the pilot to have the airport in sight, or a preceding aircraft to be followed, and the ceiling must be at least 1,000 feet AGL with at least 3 SM visibility.
Charted Visual Flight Procedures
A charted visual flight procedure (CVFP) may be established at some airports with control towers for environmental or noise considerations, as well as when necessary for the safety and efficiency of air traffic operations. Designed primarily for turbojet aircraft, CVFPs depict prominent landmarks, courses, and recommended altitudes to specific runways. When pilots are flying the Roaring Fork Visual RWY 15, shown in Figure 1, mountains, rivers, and towns provide guidance to Aspen, Colorado’s Sardy Field instead of VORs, NDBs, and DME fixes.
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| Figure 1. Charted visual flight procedures (CVFP) |
Pilots must have a charted visual landmark or a preceding aircraft in sight, and weather must be at or above the published minimums before ATC will issue a CVFP clearance. ATC will clear pilots for a CVFP if the reported ceiling at the airport of intended landing is at least 500 feet above the MVA/MIA, and the visibility is 3 SM or more, unless higher minimums are published for the particular CVFP. When accepting a clearance to follow traffic, the pilot is responsible for maintaining a safe altitude, approach interval and wake turbulence separation from other aircraft Pilots must advise ATC if unable at any point to continue a charted visual approach or if the pilot loses sight of the preceding aircraft.
RNAV Approaches
Because of the complications with database coding, naming conventions were changed in January 2001 to accommodate all approaches using RNAV equipment into one classification which is RNAV. This classification includes both ground- based and satellite dependent systems. Eventually all approaches that use some type of RNAV will reflect RNAV in the approach title.
This changeover is being made to reflect two shifts in instrument approach technology. The first shift is the use of the RNP concept outlined in Departure Procedures section, in which a single performance standard concept is being implemented for departure/approach procedure design. Through the use of RNP, the underlying system of navigation may not be required, provided the aircraft can maintain the appropriate RNP standard. The second shift is advanced avionics systems, such as FMS, used by most airlines, needed a new navigation standard by which RNAV could be fully integrated into the instrument approach system.
An FMS uses multi-sensor navigation inputs to produce a composite position. Essentially, the FMS navigation function automatically blends or selects position sensors to compute aircraft position. Instrument approach charts and RNAV databases needed to change to reflect these issues. A complete discussion of airborne navigation databases is included in section, Airborne Navigation Databases. Due to the multi- faceted nature of RNAV, new approach criteria have been developed to accommodate the design of RNAV instrument approaches. This includes criteria for terminal arrival areas (TAAs), RNAV basic approach criteria, and specific final approach criteria for different types of RNAV approaches.
Terminal Arrival Areas
The Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) provides a transition from the en route structure to the terminal environment with little required pilot/air traffic control interface for aircraft equipped with Area Navigation (RNAV) systems. TAAs provide minimum altitudes with standard obstacle clearance when operating within the TAA boundaries. TAAs are primarily used on RNAV approaches but may be used on an ILS approach when RNAV is the sole means for navigation to the IF; however, they are not normally used in areas of heavy concentration of air traffic . [Figure 2]
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| Figure 2. Terminal arrival area (TAA) design “basic T.” |
The basic design of the RNAV procedure underlying the TAA is normally the “T” design (also called the “Basic T”). The “T” design incorporates two IAFs plus a dual purpose IF/IAF that functions as both an intermediate fix and an initial approach fix. The T configuration continues from the IF/IAF to the FAF and then to the MAP. The two base leg IAFs are typically aligned in a straight-line perpendicular to the intermediate course connecting at the IF/IAF. A Hold-in-Lieu-of Procedure Turn (HILO) is anchored at the IF/IAF and depicted on U.S. Government publications using the “hold−in−lieu−of−PT” holding pattern symbol. When the HILO is necessary for course alignment and/or descent, the dual purpose IF/IAF serves as an IAF during the entry into the pattern. Following entry into the HILO pattern and when flying a route or sector labeled “NoPT,” the dual-purpose fix serves as an IF, marking the beginning of the Intermediate Segment.The standard TAA based on the “T” design consists of three areas defined by the IAF legs and the intermediate segment course beginning at the IF/IAF. These areas are called the straight−in, left−base, and right−base areas. [Figure 2] TAA area lateral boundaries are identified by magnetic courses TO the IF/IAF. The straight−in area can be further divided into pie−shaped sectors with the boundaries identified by magnetic courses TO the IF/ IAF, and may contain step-down sections defined by arcs based on RNAV distances from the IF/IAF.Entry from the terminal area onto the procedure is normally accomplished via a no procedure turn (NoPT) routing or via a course reversal maneuver. The published procedure will be annotated “NoPT” to indicate when the course reversal is not authorized when flying within a particular TAA sector [Figures 2 and 3]. Otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute the course reversal under the provisions of 14 CFR § 91.175. The pilot may elect to use the course reversal pattern when it is not required by the procedure, but must receive clearance from air traffic control before beginning the procedure.
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| Figure 3. RNAV approaches with and without TAAs |
ATC should not clear an aircraft to the left base leg or right base leg IAF within a TAA at an intercept angle exceeding 90 degrees. Pilots must not execute the HILO course reversal when the sector or procedure segment is labeled “NoPT.”ATC may clear aircraft direct to the fix labeled IF/IAF if the course to the IF/IAF is within the straight-in sector labeled “NoPT” and the intercept angle does not exceed 90 degrees. Pilots are expected to proceed direct to the IF/ IAF and accomplish a straight-in approach. Do not execute HILO course reversal. Pilots are also expected to fly the straight−in approach when ATC provides radar vectors and monitoring to the IF/IAF and issues a“straight-in” approach clearance; otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute the HILO course reversal. (See AIM Paragraph 5−4−6, Approach Clearance)
On rare occasions, ATC may clear the aircraft for an approach at the airport without specifying the approach procedure by name or by a specific approach (e.g., “cleared RNAV Runway 34 approach”) without specifying a particular IAF. In either case, the pilot should proceed direct to the IAF or to the IF/IAF associated with the sector that the aircraft will enter the TAA and join the approach course from that point and if required by that sector (i.e., sector is not labeled “NoPT), complete the HILO course reversal.Note: If approaching with a TO bearing that is on a sector boundary, the pilot is expected to proceed in accordance with a “NoPT” routing unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
Altitudes published within the TAA replace the MSA altitude. However, unlike MSA altitudes the TAA altitudes are operationally usable altitudes. These altitudes provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance, and more in mountainous areas. It is important that the pilot knows which area of the TAA that the aircraft will enter in order to comply with the minimum altitude requirements. The pilot can determine which area of the TAA the aircraft will enter by determining the magnetic bearing of the aircraft TO the fix labeled IF/IAF. The bearing should then be compared to the published lateral boundary bearings that define the TAA areas. Do not use magnetic bearing to the right-base or left-base IAFs to determine position.An ATC clearance direct to an IAF or to the IF/IAF without an approach clearance does not authorize a pilot to descend to a lower TAA altitude. If a pilot desires a lower altitude without an approach clearance, request the lower TAA altitude from ATC. Pilots not sure of the clearance should confirm their clearance with ATC or request a specific clearance. Pilots entering the TAA with two−way radio communications failure (14 CFR § 91.185, IFR Operations: Two−way Radio Communications Failure), must maintain the highest altitude prescribed by 14 CFR § 91.185(c)(2) until arriving at the appropriate IAF.Once cleared for the approach, pilots may descend in the TAA sector to the minimum altitude depicted within the defined area/subdivision, unless instructed otherwise by air traffic control. Pilots should plan their descent within the TAA to permit a normal descent from the IF/IAF to the FAF.
U.S. Government charts depict TAAs using icons located in the plan view outside the depiction of the actual approach procedure. Use of icons is necessary to avoid obscuring any portion of the “T” procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum altitudes, etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be located and oriented on the plan view with respect to the direction of arrival to the approach procedure, and will show all TAA minimum altitudes and sector/radius subdivisions. The IAF for each area of the TAA is included on the icon where it appears on the approach to help the pilot orient the icon to the approach procedure. The IAF name and the distance of the TAA area boundary from the IAF are included on the outside arc of the TAA area icon.
TAAs may be modified from the standard size and shape to accommodate operational or ATC requirements. Some areas may be eliminated, while the other areas are expanded. The “T” design may be modified by the procedure designers where required by terrain or ATC considerations. For instance, the “T” design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly shaped “Y,” an upside down “L,” or an “I.”
When an airway does not cross the lateral TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established from an airway fix or NAVAID to the TAA boundary to provide a transition from the en route structure to the appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate at the TAA boundary and will be aligned along a path pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary and cleared for the approach by ATC.
Each waypoint on the “T” is assigned a pronounceable 5− letter name, except the missed approach waypoint. These names are used for ATC communications, RNAV databases, and aeronautical navigation products. The missed approach waypoint is assigned a pronounceable name when it is not located at the runway threshold.
