Pitot Static Instruments | Instrument Flying

Sensitive Altimeter

A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.

Principle of Operation

The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid capsules. [Figure 1] The air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress them against their natural springiness, which tries to expand them. The result is that their thickness changes as the air pressure changes. Stacking several aneroids increases the dimension change as the pressure varies over the usable range of the instrument.

Figure 1. Sensitive altimeter components

Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible. Above this altitude, a mask begins to cover it, and above 15,000 feet, all of the stripes are covered. [Figure 2]

Figure 2. Three-pointer altimeter

Another configuration of the altimeter is the drum-type. [Figure 3] These instruments have only one pointer that makes one revolution for every 1,000 feet. Each number represents 100 feet and each mark represents 20 feet. A drum, marked in thousands of feet, is geared to the mechanism that drives the pointer. To read this type of altimeter, first look at the drum to get the thousands of feet, and then at the pointer to get the feet and hundreds of feet.

Figure 3. Drum-type altimeter

A sensitive altimeter is one with an adjustable barometric scale allowing the pilot to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured. This scale is visible in a small window called the Kollsman window. A knob on the instrument adjusts the scale. The range of the scale is from 28.00 to 31.00 inches of mercury (“Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars.Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and the altimeter pointers in such a way that a change in the barometric scale of 1 “Hg changes the pointer indication by 1,000 feet. This is the standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000 feet. When the barometric scale is adjusted to 29.92 “Hg or 1,013.2 millibars, the pointers indicate the pressure altitude. The pilot displays indicate altitude by adjusting the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The altimeter then indicates the height above the existing sea level pressure.

Altimeter Errors

A sensitive altimeter is designed to indicate standard changes from standard conditions, but most flying involves errors caused by nonstandard conditions and the pilot must be able to modify the indications to correct for these errors. There are two types of errors: mechanical and inherent.

Mechanical Altimeter Errors

A preflight check to determine the condition of an altimeter consists of setting the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The altimeter should indicate the surveyed elevation of the airport. If the indication is off by more than 75 feet from the surveyed elevation, the instrument should be referred to a certificated instrument repair station for recalibration. Differences between ambient temperature and/or pressure causes an erroneous indication on the altimeter.

Inherent Altimeter Error

When the aircraft is flying in air that is warmer than standard, the air is less dense and the pressure levels are farther apart. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, the pressure level for that altitude is higher than it would be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher than it would be if the air were cooler. If the air is colder than standard, it is denser and the pressure levels are closer together. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, its true altitude is lower than it would be if the air were warmer. [Figure 4]

Figure 4. The loss of altitude experienced when flying into an area where the air is cooled (more dense) than standard

Cold Weather Altimeter Errors

A correctly calibrated pressure altimeter indicates true altitude above mean sea level (MSL) when operating within the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) parameters of pressure and temperature. Nonstandard pressure conditions are corrected by applying the correct local area altimeter setting.

Temperature errors from ISA result in true altitude being higher than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is warmer than ISA and true altitude being lower than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is colder than ISA. True altitude variance under conditions of colder than ISA temperatures poses the risk of inadequate obstacle clearance.

Under extremely cold conditions, pilots may need to add an appropriate temperature correction determined from the chart in Figure 5 to charted IFR altitudes to ensure terrain and obstacle clearance with the following restrictions:

Altitudes specifically assigned by Air Traffic Control (ATC), such as “maintain 5,000 feet” shall not be corrected. Assigned altitudes may be rejected if the pilot decides that low temperatures pose a risk of inadequate terrain or obstacle clearance.
If temperature corrections are applied to charted IFR altitudes (such as procedure turn altitudes, final approach fix crossing altitudes, etc.), the pilot must advise ATC of the applied correction.

Figure 5. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) cold temperature error table

ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table

The cold temperature induced altimeter error may be significant when considering obstacle clearances when temperatures are well below standard. Pilots may wish to increase their minimum terrain clearance altitudes with a corresponding increase in ceiling from the normal minimum when flying in extreme cold temperature conditions. Higher altitudes may need to be selected when flying at low terrain clearances. Most flight management systems (FMS) with air data computers implement a capability to compensate for cold temperature errors. Pilots flying with these systems should ensure they are aware of the conditions under which the system automatically compensates. If compensation is applied by the FMS or manually, ATC must be informed that the aircraft is not flying the assigned altitude. Otherwise, vertical separation from other aircraft may be reduced creating a potentially hazardous situation. The table in Figure 5, derived from International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standard formulas, shows how much error can exist when the temperature is extremely cold. To use the table, find the reported temperature in the left column, and then read across the top row to the height above the airport/reporting station. Subtract the airport elevation from the altitude of the final approach fix (FAF). The intersection of the column and row is the amount of possible error.

Example: The reported temperature is –10 degrees Celsius (°C) and the FAF is 500 feet above the airport elevation. The reported current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as much as 50 feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter.When using the cold temperature error table, the altitude error is proportional to both the height above the reporting station elevation and the temperature at the reporting station. For IFR approach procedures, the reporting station elevation is assumed to be airport elevation. It is important to understand that corrections are based upon the temperature at the reporting station, not the temperature observed at the aircraft’s current altitude and height above the reporting station and not the charted IFR altitude.

To see how corrections are applied, note the following example:
Airport Elevation: 496 feet
Airport Temperature: –50 °C

A charted IFR approach to the airport provides the following data:
Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude: 1,800 feet
Minimum FAF Crossing Altitude: 1,200 feet
Straight-in Minimum Descent Altitude: 800 feet
Circling Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA): 1,000 feet

The Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude of 1,800 feet is used as an example to demonstrate determination of the appropriate temperature correction. Typically, altitude values are rounded up to the nearest 100-foot level. The charted procedure turn altitude of 1,800 feet minus the airport elevation of 500 feet equals 1,300 feet. The altitude difference of 1,300 feet falls between the correction chart elevations of 1,000 feet and 1,500 feet. At the station temperature of –50 °C, the correction falls between 300 feet and 450 feet. Dividing the difference in compensation values by the difference in altitude above the airport gives the error value per foot.

In this case, 150 feet divided by 500 feet = 0.33 feet for each additional foot of altitude above 1,000 feet. This provides a correction of 300 feet for the first 1,000 feet and an additional value of 0.33 times 300 feet, or 99 feet, which is rounded to 100 feet. 300 feet + 100 feet = total temperature correction of 400 feet. For the given conditions, correcting the charted value of 1,800 feet above MSL (equal to a height above the reporting station of 1,300 feet) requires the addition of 400 feet. Thus, when flying at an indicated altitude of 2,200 feet, the aircraft is actually flying a true altitude of 1,800 feet.

Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude
1,800 feet charted = 2,200 feet corrected
Minimum FAF Crossing Altitude
1,200 feet charted = 1,500 feet corrected
Straight-in MDA
800 feet charted = 900 feet corrected
Circling MDA
1,000 feet charted = 1,200 feet corrected

Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter

Maintaining a current altimeter setting is critical because the atmosphere pressure is not constant. That is, in one location the pressure might be higher than the pressure just a short distance away. Take an aircraft whose altimeter setting is set to 29.92″ of local pressure. As the aircraft moves to an area of lower pressure (Point A to B in Figure 6) and the pilot fails to readjust the altimeter setting (essentially calibrating it to local pressure), then as the pressure decreases, the true altitude is lower. Adjusting the altimeter settings compensates for this. When the altimeter shows an indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, the true altitude at Point A (the height above mean sea level) is only 3,500 feet at Point B. The fact that the altitude indication is not always true lends itself to the memory aid, “When flying from hot to cold or from a high to a low, look out below.” [Figure 6]

Figure 6. Effects of nonstandard pressure on an altimeter of an aircraft flown into air of lower than standard pressure (air is less dense)

Altimeter Enhancements (Encoding)

It is not sufficient in the airspace system for only the pilot to have an indication of the aircraft’s altitude; the air traffic controller on the ground must also know the altitude of the aircraft. To provide this information, the aircraft is typically equipped with an encoding altimeter.

When the ATC transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding altimeter supplies the transponder with a series of pulses identifying the flight level (in increments of 100 feet) at which the aircraft is flying. This series of pulses is transmitted to the ground radar where they appear on the controller’s scope as an alphanumeric display around the return for the aircraft. The transponder allows the ground controller to identify the aircraft and determine the pressure altitude at which it is flying.

A computer inside the encoding altimeter measures the pressure referenced from 29.92 “Hg and delivers this data to the transponder. When the pilot adjusts the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting, the data sent to the transponder is not affected. This is to ensure that all Mode C aircraft are transmitting data referenced to a common pressure level. ATC equipment adjusts the displayed altitudes to compensate for local pressure differences allowing display of targets at correct altitudes. 14 CFR part 91 requires the altitude transmitted by the transponder to be within 125 feet of the altitude indicated on the instrument used to maintain flight altitude.

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)

Below 31,000 feet, a 1,000 foot separation is the minimum required between usable flight levels. Flight levels (FLs) generally start at 18,000 feet where the local pressure is 29.92 “Hg or greater. All aircraft 18,000 feet and above use a standard altimeter setting of 29.92 “Hg, and the altitudes are in reference to a standard hence termed FL. Between FL 180 and FL 290, the minimum altitude separation is 1,000 feet between aircraft. However, for flight above FL 290 (primarily due to aircraft equipage and reporting capability; potential error) ATC applied the requirement of 2,000 feet of separation. FL 290, an altitude appropriate for an eastbound aircraft, would be followed by FL 310 for a westbound aircraft, and so on to FL 410, or seven FLs available for flight. With 1,000-foot separation, or a reduction of the vertical separation between FL 290 and FL 410, an additional six FLs become available. This results in normal flight level and direction management being maintained from FL 180 through FL 410. Hence the name is Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM). Because it is applied domestically, it is called United States Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (DRVSM).

However, there is a cost to participate in the DRVSM program which relates to both aircraft equipage and pilot training. For example, altimetry error must be reduced significantly and operators using RVSM must receive authorization from the appropriate civil aviation authority. RVSM aircraft must meet required altitude-keeping performance standards. Additionally, operators must operate in accordance with RVSM policies/procedures applicable to the airspace where they are flying.

The aircraft must be equipped with at least one automatic altitude control—

Within a tolerance band of ±65 feet about an acquired altitude when the aircraft is operated in straight-andlevel flight.
Within a tolerance band of ±130 feet under no turbulent, conditions for aircraft for which application for type certification occurred on or before April 9, 1997 that are equipped with an automatic altitude control system with flight management/performance system inputs.

That aircraft must be equipped with an altitude alert system that signals an alert when the altitude displayed to the flight crew deviates from the selected altitude by more than (in most cases) 200 feet. For each condition in the full RVSM flight envelope, the largest combined absolute value for residual static source error plus the avionics error may not exceed 200 feet. Aircraft with TCAS must have compatibility with RVSM Operations. Figure 7 illustrates the increase in aircraft permitted between FL 180 and FL 410. Most noteworthy, however, is the economization that aircraft can take advantage of by the higher FLs being available to more aircraft.

Figure 7. Increase in aircraft permitted between FL 180 and FL 410

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

The VSI in Figure 8 is also called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI), and was formerly known as a rate-of-climb indicator. It is a rate-of-pressure change instrument that gives an indication of any deviation from a constant pressure level.

Figure 8. Rate of climb or descent in thousands of feet per minute

Inside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like the one in an ASI. Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system, but the case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure inside the case to change more slowly than the pressure inside the aneroid. As the aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes lower. The pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward, showing a climb and indicating the rate of ascent in number of feet per minute (fpm).When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer changes. The pressure inside the case becomes equal to that inside the aneroid, and the pointer returns to its horizontal, or zero, position. When the aircraft descends, the static pressure increases. The aneroid expands, moving the pointer downward, indicating a descent.

The pointer indication in a VSI lags a few seconds behind the actual change in pressure. However, it is more sensitive than an altimeter and is useful in alerting the pilot of an upward or downward trend, thereby helping maintain a constant altitude.

Some of the more complex VSIs, called instantaneous vertical speed indicators (IVSI), have two accelerometer-actuated air pumps that sense an upward or downward pitch of the aircraft and instantaneously create a pressure differential. By the time the pressure caused by the pitch acceleration dissipates, the altitude pressure change is effective.