Radio Altimeters
A radio altimeter, commonly referred to as a radar altimeter, is a system used for accurately measuring and displaying the height above the terrain directly beneath the aircraft. It sends a signal to the ground and processes the timed information. Its primary application is to provide accurate absolute altitude information to the pilot during approach and landing. In advanced aircraft today, the radar altimeter also provides its information to other onboard systems such as the autopilot and flight directors while they are in the glideslope capture mode below 200-300 feet above ground level (AGL).
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| Figure 1. Components of a radar altimeter |
A typical system consists of a receiver-transmitter (RT) unit, antenna(s) for receiving and transmitting the signal, and an indicator. [Figure 1] Category II and III precision approach procedures require the use of a radar altimeter and specify the exact minimum height above the terrain as a decision height (DH) or radio altitude (RA).
Traffic Advisory Systems
Traffic Information System
The Traffic Information Service (TIS) is a ground-based service providing information to the flight deck via data link using the S-mode transponder and altitude encoder. TIS improves the safety and efficiency of “see and avoid” flight through an automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby traffic. The display can show location, direction, altitude and the climb/descent trend of other transponder-equipped aircraft. TIS provides estimated position, altitude, altitude trend, and ground track information for up to several aircraft simultaneously within about 7 NM horizontally, 3,500 feet above and 3,500 feet below the aircraft. [Figure 2] This data can be displayed on a variety of MFDs. [Figure 3]
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| Figure 2. Coverage provided by a traffic information system |
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| Figure 3. Multi-function display (MFD) |
Figure 4 displays the pictorial concept of the traffic information system. Noteworthy is the requirement to have Mode S and that the ground air traffic station processes the Mode S signal.
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| Figure 4. Concept of the traffic information system |
Traffic Alert Systems
Traffic alert systems receive transponder information from nearby aircraft to help determine their relative position to the equipped aircraft. They provide three-dimensional location of other aircraft [Figures 5, 6, and 7] and are cost effective alternatives to TCAS equipage for smaller aircraft.
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| Figure 5. Theory of a typical alert system |
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| Figure 6. Skywatch System |
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| Figure 7. Alert System by Avidyne (Ryan) |
Traffic Avoidance Systems
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
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| Figure 8. An example of a resolution advisory being provided to the pilot. In this case, the pilot is requested to climb, with 1,750 feet being the appropriate rate of ascent to avoid traffic conflict. This visual indication plus the audio warning provide the pilot with excellent traffic awareness that augments see-and-avoid practices |
Terrain Alerting Systems
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
An early application of technology to reduce controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) was the GPWS. In airline use since the early 1970s, GPWS uses the radio altimeter, speed, and barometric altitude to determine the aircraft’s position relative to the ground. The system uses this information in determining aircraft clearance above the Earth and provides limited predictability about aircraft position relative to rising terrain. It does this based upon algorithms within the system and developed by the manufacturer for different airplanes or helicopters. However, in mountainous areas the system is unable to provide predictive information due to the unusual slope encountered.
This inability to provide predictive information was evidenced in 1999 when a DH-7 crashed in South America. The crew had a GPWS onboard, but the sudden rise of the terrain rendered it ineffective; the crew continued unintentionally into a mountain with steep terrain. Another incident involved Secretary of Commerce Brown who, along with all on board, was lost when the crew flew over rapidly rising terrain where the GPWS capability is offset by terrain gradient. However, the GPWS is tied into and considers landing gear status, flap position, and ILS glideslope deviation to detect unsafe aircraft operation with respect to terrain, excessive descent rate, excessive closure rate to terrain, unsafe terrain clearance while not in a landing configuration, excessive deviation below an ILS glideslope. It also provides advisory callouts.
Generally, the GPWS is tied into the hot bus bar of the electrical system to prevent inadvertent switch off. This was demonstrated in an accident involving a large four-engine turboprop airplane. While on final for landing with the landing gear inadvertently up, the crew failed to heed the GPWS warning as the aircraft crossed a large berm close to the threshold. In fact, the crew attempted without success to shut the system down and attributed the signal to a malfunction. Only after the mishap did the crew realize the importance of the GPWS warning.
Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS)
A TAWS uses GPS positioning and a database of terrain and obstructions to provide true predictability of the upcoming terrain and obstacles. The warnings it provides pilots are both aural and visual, instructing the pilot to take specific action. Because TAWS relies on GPS and a database of terrain/obstacle information, predictability is based upon aircraft location and projected location. The system is time based and therefore compensates for the performance of the aircraft and its speed. [Figure 9]
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| Figure 9. A six-frame sequence illustrating the manner in which TAWS operates. A TAWS installation is aircraft specific and provides warnings and cautions based upon time to potential impact with terrain rather than distance. The TAWS is illustrated in an upper left window while aircrew view is provided out of the windscreen. A illustrates the aircraft in relation to the outside terrain while B and C illustrate the manner in which the TAWS system displays the terrain. D is providing a caution of terrain to be traversed, E while provides an illustration of a warning with an aural and textural advisory (red) to pull up. E also illustrates a pilot taking appropriate action (climb in this case) while F illustrates that a hazard is no longer a factor |
Head-Up Display (HUD)
The HUD is a display system that provides a projection of navigation and air data (airspeed in relation to approach reference speed, altitude, left/right and up/down glideslope) on a transparent screen between the pilot and the windshield. The concept of a HUD is to diminish the shift between looking at the instrument panel and outside. Virtually any information desired can be displayed on the HUD if it is available in the aircraft’s flight computer. The display for the HUD can be projected on a separate panel near the windscreen or as shown in Figure 10 on an eye piece. Other information may be displayed, including a runway target in relation to the nose of the aircraft, which allows the pilot to see the information necessary to make the approach while also being able to see out the windshield.
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| Figure 10. A head-up display (HUD) |