# Flight Study

> Pilot Knowledge & Resources


## Posts

- [Before Takeoff Check and Takeoff Checks](https://flight-study.com/before-takeoff-check-and-takeoff-checks/): Before-Takeoff Check The before-takeoff check is the systematic AFM/POH procedure for checking the engine, controls, systems, instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, the before-takeoff checklist is performed after taxiing to a run-up position near the takeoff end of the runway. Many engines require that the oil temperature reach a minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before takeoff power is applied. Taxiing to the run-up position usually allows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating temperature; however, the pilot should verify that the oil temperature is within the proper range prior to the application ... Read more
- [Airplane Taxiing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-taxiing/): Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the surface. Since an airplane is moved under its own power between a parking area and the runway, the pilot needs to understand and be proficient in taxi procedures. A pilot should maintain situational awareness of the ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and the persons, equipment and aircraft at all times. Without such awareness, safety may be compromised. Depending on the airport, the parking, ramp, and taxiways may or may not be controlled. As such, it is important that the pilot completely understands the operating environment. ... Read more
- [Engine Starting and Hand Propping](https://flight-study.com/engine-starting-and-hand-propping/): Engine Starting Airplane engines vary substantially and specific procedures for engine starting should be accomplished in reference to the approved engine start checklist as detailed in the airplane’s AFM/POH. However, some generally accepted hazard mitigation practices and procedures are outlined in this section. Prior to engine start, the pilot needs to ensure that the ramp area surrounding the airplane is clear of persons, equipment, and other hazards that could come into contact with the airplane or the propeller. Also, the pilot should check what is behind the airplane prior to engine start as standard practice. A propeller or other engine thrust ... Read more
- [Aircraft Ground Operations](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-ground-operations/): The airport ramp can be a complex environment with airport personnel, passengers, trucks, other vehicles, aircraft, and errant people and animals. The pilot is responsible for the operation of the airplane and should operate safely at all times. Ground operations subject the pilot to unique hazards, and mitigating those hazards requires proper planning and good situational awareness in the ground environment. A mitigation tactic involves reviewing the airport diagram prior to operating and having it readily available at all times. Whether departing to or from the ramp, the pilot needs to understand and capably manage the following: During refueling operations, it ... Read more
- [Risk and Resource Management](https://flight-study.com/risk-and-resource-management/): Ground operations also include the pilot’s assessment of the risk factors that contribute to safety of flight and the pilot’s management of the resources, which may be leveraged to maximize the flight’s successes. The Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2) should be reviewed for a comprehensive discussion of this topic. A review of key points follows. Approximately 85 percent of all aviation accidents have been determined by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to have been caused by “failure of the pilot to…” As such, a reduction of these failures is the fundamental cornerstone to risk and resource management. The risks involved with ... Read more
- [Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/preflight-assessment-of-the-aircraft/): The visual preflight assessment mitigates airplane flight hazards. The preflight assessment ensures that any aircraft flown meets regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical condition prior to flight. Per 14 CFR part 3, section 3.5(a), the term “airworthy” means that the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in condition for safe operation. The owner/operator is primarily responsible for maintenance, but in accordance with 14 CFR part 91, section 91.7(a) and (b) no person may operate a civil aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition and the pilot in command of a civil aircraft is responsible for ... Read more
- [Role of the Pilot Examiner and the Flight Instructor](https://flight-study.com/role-of-the-pilot-examiner-and-the-flight-instructor/): Role of the Pilot Examiner Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by the FAA upon satisfactory completion of required knowledge and practical tests. The administration of practical tests is an FAA responsibility that may occur at the FSDO level. However, in order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and certification services, the FAA delegates certain responsibilities, as the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA employees. A Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) is a private citizen who is designated as a representative of the FAA Administrator to perform specific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalf of ... Read more
- [Role of the FAA](https://flight-study.com/role-of-the-faa/): The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety by prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. Standards are established for the certification of airmen and aircraft, as well as outlining operating rules. This is accomplished through the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), formerly referred to as Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR). Title 14 of the CFR (14 CFR) is titled Aeronautics and Space with Chapter 1 dedicated to the FAA. Subchapters are broken down by category with numbered parts detailing specific information. [Figure 1] For ease of reference and since the parts are numerical, the abbreviated ... Read more
- [Introduction to Flight Training](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-flight-training/): The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training, as outlined in this site, is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills. [Figure 1] Airmanship is a broad term that includes a sound knowledge of and experience with the principles of flight; the knowledge, experience, and ability to operate an aircraft with competence and precision both on the ground and in the air; and the application of sound judgment that results in optimal operational safety and efficiency. [Figure 2] Figure 1. Primary and intermediate flight training teaches basic airmanship skills and creates a good foundation for learners Figure 2. Good ... Read more
- [Helicopter Autorotation Aerodynamics](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-autorotation-aerodynamics/): Autorotation is the state of flight where the main rotor disk of a helicopter is being turned by the action of air moving up through the rotor rather than engine power driving the rotor. In normal, powered flight, air is drawn into the main rotor disk from above and exhausted downward, but during autorotation, air moves up into the rotor disk from below as the helicopter descends. Autorotation is permitted mechanically by a freewheeling unit, which is a special clutch mechanism that allows the main rotor to continue turning even if the engine is not running. If the engine fails, the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Sideward, Rearward and Turning Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-sideward-rearward-and-turning-flight/): Sideward Flight In sideward flight, the tip-path plane is tilted in the direction that flight is desired. This tilts the total lift-thrust vector sideward. In this case, the vertical or lift component is still straight up and weight straight down, but the horizontal or thrust component now acts sideward with drag acting to the opposite side. [Figure 1] Sideward flight can be a very unstable condition due to the parasitic drag of the fuselage combined with the lack of horizontal stabilizer for that direction of flight. Increased altitudes help with control and the pilot must always scan in the direction of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Forward Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-forward-flight/): In steady forward flight, with no change in airspeed or vertical speed, the four forces of lift, thrust, drag, and weight must be in balance. Once the tip-path plane is tilted forward, the total lift-thrust force is also tilted forward. This resultant lift-thrust force can be resolved into two components—lift acting vertically upward and thrust acting horizontally in the direction of flight. In addition to lift and thrust, there is weight (the downward acting force) and drag (the force opposing the motion of an airfoil through the air). [Figure 1] In straight-and-level, unaccelerated forward flight (straight-and-level flight is flight with a ... Read more
- [Helicopter Vertical Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-vertical-flight/): Hovering is actually an element of vertical flight. Increasing the angle of incidence of the rotor blades (pitch) while keeping their rotation speed constant generates additional lift and the helicopter ascends. Decreasing the pitch causes the helicopter to descend. In a no-wind condition in which lift and thrust are less than weight and drag, the helicopter descends vertically. If lift and thrust are greater than weight and drag, the helicopter ascends vertically. [Figure] RELATED POSTS Aerodynamics of Flight Forces Acting on the Aircraft Airfoil Terminology, Definitions and Types Airflow and Reactions in the Rotor System Hovering Flight Forward Flight Sideward, Rearward ... Read more
- [Helicopter Hovering Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-hovering-flight/): Hovering is the most challenging part of flying a helicopter. This is because a helicopter generates its own gusty air while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage and flight control surfaces. The end result is constant control inputs and corrections by the pilot to keep the helicopter where it is required to be. Despite the complexity of the task, the control inputs in a hover are simple. The cyclic is used to eliminate drift in the horizontal plane, controlling forward, backward, right and left movement or travel. The throttle, if not governor controlled, is used to control revolutions per ... Read more
- [Helicopter Rotor System Airflow and Reactions](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-rotor-system-airflow-and-reactions/): Relative Wind Knowledge of relative wind is essential for an understanding of aerodynamics and its practical flight application for the pilot. Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil. Movement of an airfoil through the air creates relative wind. Relative wind moves in a parallel but opposite direction to movement of the airfoil. [Figure 1] There are two parts to wind passing a rotor blade: Horizontal part—caused by the blades turning plus movement of the helicopter through the air [Figure 2] Vertical part—caused by the air being forced down through the rotor blades plus any movement of the air relative to ... Read more
- [Helicopter Airfoil Terminology, Definitions, and Types](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-airfoil-terminology-definitions-and-types/): Helicopters are able to fly due to aerodynamic forces produced when air passes around the airfoil. An airfoil is any surface producing more lift than drag when passing through the air at a suitable angle. Airfoils are most often associated with production of lift. Airfoils are also used for stability (fin), control (elevator), and thrust or propulsion (propeller or rotor). Certain airfoils, such as rotor blades, combine some of these functions. The main and tail rotor blades of the helicopter are airfoils, and air is forced to pass around the blades by mechanically powered rotation. In some conditions, parts of the ... Read more
- [Forces Acting on a Helicopter](https://flight-study.com/forces-acting-on-a-helicopter/): Once a helicopter leaves the ground, it is acted upon by four aerodynamic forces; thrust, drag, lift, and weight. Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them with the use of power and flight controls are essential to flight. [Figure 1] They are defined as follows: Lift—opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil and acts perpendicular to the flightpath through the center of lift. Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the aircraft downward because ... Read more
- [Airplane Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC](https://flight-study.com/airplane-inadvertent-vfr-flight-into-imc/): It is beyond the scope of this site to incorporate a course of training in basic attitude instrument flying. This information is contained in the Instrument Flying section. Certain pilot certificates and/or associated ratings require training in instrument flying and a demonstration of specific instrument flying tasks on the practical test. Pilots and flight instructors should refer to the Instrument Flying section for guidance in the performance of these tasks and to the appropriate airman certification standards (ACS) for information on the evaluation of tasks performed for the particular certificate level and/or rating. The pilot should remember, however, that unless these ... Read more
- [Airplane Door Opening in Flight](https://flight-study.com/airplane-door-opening-in-flight/): In most instances, the occurrence of an inadvertent door opening is not of great concern to the safety of a flight, but rather, the pilot’s reaction at the moment the incident happens. A door opening in flight may be accompanied by a sudden loud noise, sustained noise level, and possible vibration or buffeting. If a pilot allows himself or herself to become distracted to the point where attention is focused on the open door rather than maintaining control of the airplane, loss of control may result even though disruption of airflow by the door is minimal. In the event of an ... Read more
- [Airplane Abnormal Engine Instrument Indications](https://flight-study.com/airplane-abnormal-engine-instrument-indications/): The AFM/POH for the specific airplane contains information that should be followed in the event of any abnormal engine instrument indications. The table shown in Figure offers generic information on some of the more commonly experienced in-flight abnormal engine instrument indications, their possible causes, and corrective actions. Malfunction Probable Cause Corrective Action Loss of rpm during cruise flight (non-altitude engines) Carburetor or induction icing or air filter clogging Apply carburetor heat. If dirty filter is suspected and non-filtered air is available, switch selector to unfiltered position. Loss of manifold pressure during cruise flight Same as above Same as above Turbocharger failure ... Read more
- [Airplane Systems Malfunctions and Emergency Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-systems-malfunctions-and-emergency-procedures/): Electrical System The loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot of numerous critical systems, and therefore should not be taken lightly even in day/visual flight rules (VFR) conditions. Most in-flight failures of the electrical system are located in the generator or alternator. Once the generator or alternator system goes off line, the electrical source in a typical light airplane is a battery. If a warning light or ammeter indicates the probability of an alternator or generator failure in an airplane with only one generating system, however, the pilot may have very little time available from the battery. The rating of ... Read more
- [Airplane Flight Control Malfunction or Failure](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flight-control-malfunction-or-failure/): Total Flap Failure The inability to extend the wing flaps necessitates a no-flap approach and landing. In light airplanes, a no-flap approach and landing is not particularly difficult or dangerous. However, there are certain factors that should be considered in the execution of this maneuver. A no-flap landing requires substantially more runway than normal. The increase in required landing distance could be as much as 50 percent. When flying in the traffic pattern with the wing flaps retracted, the airplane should be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude to maintain altitude, as compared to flight with flaps extended. Losing altitude can ... Read more
- [Airplane In-Flight Fire Emergency Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-in-flight-fire-emergency-procedures/): A fire in-flight demands immediate and decisive action. The pilot should be familiar with the procedures outlined to meet this emergency contained in the AFM/POH for the particular airplane. For the purposes of this post, in-flight fires are classified as in-flight engine fires, electrical fires, and cabin fires. Engine Fire An in-flight engine compartment fire is usually caused by a failure that allows a flammable substance, such as fuel, oil, or hydraulic fluid, to come in contact with a hot surface. This may be caused by a mechanical failure of the engine itself, an engine-driven accessory, a defective induction or exhaust ... Read more
- [Airplane Engine Failure After Takeoff and Emergency Descents](https://flight-study.com/airplane-engine-failure-after-takeoff-and-emergency-descents/): Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single-Engine) A number of variables and pilot actions factor into a successful emergency landing shortly after takeoff. When an engine failure occurs during the initial climb, the pilot should lower the nose of the airplane and establish the proper glide attitude. What happens next if the engine does not restart? Does the pilot select a field directly ahead (or slightly to the side of the takeoff path) or should the pilot turn back toward the point of departure? There’s not much time to decide and a lot to consider. Continuing straight ahead or making a slight turn ... Read more
- [Airplane Terrain Types for Emergency Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-terrain-types-for-emergency-landings/): Since an emergency landing on suitable terrain resembles a situation in which the pilot should be familiar through training, only the more unusual situations are discussed in the Emergency Landings post. Confined Areas The natural preference to set the airplane down on the ground should not lead to the selection of an open spot between trees or obstacles where the ground cannot be reached without making a steep descent. Once the intended touchdown point is reached, and the remaining open and unobstructed space is very limited, it may be better to force the airplane down on the ground than to delay ... Read more
- [Airplane Basic Safety Concepts for Emergencies](https://flight-study.com/airplane-basic-safety-concepts-for-emergencies/): A pilot who is faced with an emergency landing in terrain that makes extensive airplane damage inevitable should keep in mind that the avoidance of crash injuries is largely a matter of: (1) keeping the vital structure (cabin area) relatively intact by using dispensable structure (i.e., wings, landing gear, fuselage bottom) to absorb the violence of the stopping process before it affects the occupants and (2) avoiding forceful bodily contact with interior structure. Avoiding forcible contact with interior structure is a matter of seat and body security. Unless the occupant decelerates at the same rate as the surrounding structure, no benefit ... Read more
- [Airplane Emergency Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-emergency-landings/): This post contains information on emergency landing techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. The guidelines that are presented apply to the more adverse terrain conditions for which no practical training is possible. The objective is to instill in the pilot the knowledge that almost any terrain can be considered “suitable” for a survivable crash landing if the pilot knows how to use the airplane structure for self-protection and the protection of passengers. Types of Emergency Landings The different types of emergency landings are defined as follows: Forced landing—an immediate landing, on or off an airport, necessitated by the inability to continue further ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Systems and Maintenance](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-systems-and-maintenance/): All FAA-certificated jet airplanes are certificated under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 25, which contains the airworthiness standards for transport category airplanes. The FAA-certificated jet airplane is a highly sophisticated machine with proven levels of performance and guaranteed safety margins. The jet airplane’s performance and safety margins can only be realized, however, if the airplane is operated in strict compliance with the procedures and limitations contained in the FAA-approved AFM for the particular airplane. Furthermore, in accordance with 14 CFR part 91, section 91.213(a), a turbine-powered airplane does not qualify to takeoff with inoperable instruments ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Descent, Approach, and Landing](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-descent-approach-and-landing/): Jet Airplane Descent and Approach The smoothest and most fuel-efficient descent would be to reduce power to flight idle and slow to L/DMAX. In this scenario, the pilot would descend, level off to decelerate, configure for landing, intercept the final approach, and continue a gradual deceleration until setting power for a stabilized descent on final. Traffic and time considerations almost always require deviation from this example, and the typical descent profile has three descent segments with two speed reductions in between. Descent Planning For a typical idle power descent, the top of descent (TOD), point A in figure 1, is determined ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-takeoff-and-climb/): The following information is generic in nature and, since most civilian jet airplanes require a minimum flight crew of two pilots, assumes a two-pilot crew. If any of the following information conflicts with FAA-approved AFM procedures for a particular airplane, the AFM procedures take precedence. Also, if any of the following procedures differ from the FAA-approved procedures developed for use by a specific air operator and/or for use in an FAA-approved training center or pilot school curriculum, the FAA-approved procedures for that operator and/or training center/pilot school take precedence. V-Speeds The following are speeds that affect the jet airplane’s takeoff performance. ... Read more
- [Pilot Sensations During Jet Flight](https://flight-study.com/pilot-sensations-during-jet-flight/): Pilots transitioning into jets may notice these general sensations: response differences increased control sensitivity increased tempo of flight In some flight conditions, airspeed changes may occur more slowly than in a propeller airplane. At high altitudes, the reduction in available thrust reduces the ability to accelerate. The long spool-up time required from low throttle settings also may affect acceleration. Finally, the clean aerodynamic design of a jet can result in more gradual deceleration when thrust is reduced. The lack of propeller effects results in less drag at low power settings. Other changes the transitioning pilot should notice include the lack of ... Read more
- [Jet Airplanes Thrust Reversers](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplanes-thrust-reversers/): Jet airplanes have high kinetic energy during the landing roll because of weight and speed. This energy is difficult to dissipate because a jet airplane has low drag with the nose-wheel on the ground, and the engines continue to produce forward thrust with the power levers at idle. While wheel brakes serve as the primary means to stop the airplane, reverse thrust, when available, assists in deceleration. Certain thrust reverser designs effectively reverse the flow of the exhaust gases. The flow does not completely reverse. Typically, the final path of the exhaust gases is about 45° from straight ahead. This, together ... Read more
- [Jet Airplanes Drag Devices](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplanes-drag-devices/): Jet airplanes have higher glide ratios than piston-powered airplanes. Due to their low drag design, jets take more time and distance to descend or reduce speed. Therefore, jet airplanes are often equipped with drag devices, such as spoilers and speed brakes. The primary purpose of spoilers is to spoil lift. The most common type of spoiler consists of one or more rectangular plates that lie flush with the upper surface of each wing. They are installed approximately parallel to the lateral axis of the airplane and are hinged along the leading edges. When deployed, spoilers deflect up against the relative wind, ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Stall Characteristics](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-stall-characteristics/): The stalling characteristics of the swept wing jet airplane can vary considerably from those of the normal straight wing airplane. The greatest difference noticeable to the pilot is the lift developed vs. angle of attack. An increase in angle of attack of the straight wing produces a substantial and constantly increasing lift vector up to its maximum coefficient of lift, and soon thereafter flow separation (stall) occurs with a rapid deterioration of lift. By contrast, the swept wing produces a much more gradual buildup of lift with a less well-defined maximum coefficient. This less-defined peak also means that a swept wing ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Low Speed Flight](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-low-speed-flight/): The jet airplane wing, designed primarily for high-speed flight, has relatively poor low-speed characteristics. As opposed to the normal piston-powered airplane, the jet wing has less area relative to the airplane’s weight, a lower aspect ratio (long chord/short span), and thin airfoil shape—all of which amount to the need for speed to generate enough lift. The swept wing is additionally penalized at low speeds because its effective lift is proportional to airflow speed that is perpendicular to the leading edge. In a typical piston-engine airplane, VMD (minimum drag) in the clean configuration is normally at a speed of about 1.3 VS. ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Mach Buffet](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-mach-buffet/): Mach buffet arises when airflow separates on the upper surface of a wing behind a shock wave. All other things being equal, shock wave strength increases as the local airflow speed ahead of the shock wave increases. Mach buffet is a function of the speed of the airflow over the wing—not necessarily the forward speed of the airplane, and the shock wave strength, rather than a stall, creates the airflow separation. Mach buffet may result from two different conditions in cruise. At high-speed cruise, a shock wave that becomes too strong as the airflow speeds up over the upper surface causes ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Speed Margins](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-speed-margins/): Maximum speeds in jet airplanes are expressed differently and always define the maximum operating speed of the airplane, which is comparable to the VNE of the piston airplane. These maximum speeds in a jet airplane are referred to as: Mach number is the ratio of true airspeed to the speed of sound. The speed of sound varies with temperature. At low/warm altitudes, the speed of sound is so high that an aircraft is limited by indicated airspeed. At high/cold altitudes, the speed of sound is lower so the aircraft is limited by Mach. To observe both limits VMO and MMO, the ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Propeller Effects, Slipstream, and Drag](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-propeller-effects-slipstream-and-drag/): The absence of a propeller affects the operation of jet-powered airplanes. Specific effects include the absence of lift from the propeller slipstream and the absence of propeller drag. Absence of Propeller Slipstream A propeller produces thrust by accelerating a large mass of air rearward. With wing-mounted engines, this air passes over a comparatively large percentage of the wing area. The total lift equals the sum of the lift generated by the wing area not in the wake of the propeller (as a result of airplane speed) and the lift generated by the wing area influenced by the propeller slipstream. By increasing ... Read more
- [Jet Engine Basics and Operation](https://flight-study.com/jet-engine-basics-and-operation/): Jet Engine Basics A jet engine is a gas turbine with basic cycle of operation; that is, induction, compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust. Air passes through the intake and enters the compressor section, which is made up of a series of fan blades or “stages.” The first stage, visible from the front of the engine, is the largest diameter and has the biggest blades. Each subsequent stage contains smaller diameter and thinner blades of increasing pitch. The compression in each stage raises the air temperature and pressure. The high-pressure hot air enters the combustion chamber where fuel is added. During engine ... Read more
- [Transition to Turbopropeller-Powered Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-turbopropeller-powered-airplanes/): The turbopropeller-powered airplane flies and handles just like any other airplane of comparable size and weight, since the aerodynamics are the same. The major differences between flying a turboprop and other non-turbine-powered airplanes are found in the handling of the airplane’s powerplant and its associated systems, which are unique to gas turbine engines. The turbopropellerpowered airplane also has the advantage of being equipped with a constant speed, full feathering and reversing propeller—something normally not found on piston-powered airplanes. Gas Turbine Engine Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine engines are internal combustion engines. They have a similar cycle of operation that ... Read more
- [Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-tailwheel-airplanes/): Due to their design and structure, tailwheel airplanes (tailwheels) exhibit operational and handling characteristics different from those of tricycle-gear airplanes (nose-wheels). [Figure 1] A few aircraft, primarily antique and experimental, may have a tailskid instead of a tailwheel. The same principles discussed in this section usually apply to tailskid. In general, tailwheels are less forgiving of pilot error while in contact with the ground than are nose-wheels. This section focuses on the operational differences that occur during ground operations, takeoffs, and landings. Although still termed “conventional-gear airplanes,” tailwheel designs are most likely to be encountered today by pilots who have first ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Slow Flight, Spin Awareness, and Stalls](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-slow-flight-spin-awareness-and-stalls/): Slow Flight There is nothing unusual about maneuvering during slow flight in a multiengine airplane. Slow flight may be conducted in straightand-level flight, turns, climbs, or descents. It can also be conducted in the clean configuration, landing configuration, or at any other combination of landing gear and flaps. Slow flight in a multiengine airplane should be conducted so the maneuver can be completed no lower than 3,000 feet AGL or higher if recommended by the manufacturer. In all cases, practicing slow flight should be conducted at an adequate height above the ground for recovery should the airplane inadvertently stall. Pilots should ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Engine Inoperative Flight Principles](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-engine-inoperative-flight-principles/): There are two main considerations for OEI operations—performance and control. Multiengine pilots learn to operate the airplane for maximum rate of climb performance at the blue radial indicated airspeed by training to fly without sideslip. Pilots also learn to recognize and recover from loss of directional control associated with the red radial indicated airspeed by performing a VMC demonstration. Since the object of a VMC demonstration is not performance, sideslip occurs during the maneuver. Detailed discussion on both the loss of directional control and maximum OEI climb performance follows. Derivation of VMC VMC is a speed established by the manufacturer, published ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Engine Failure: Low-Altitude and In-Flight](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-engine-failure-low-altitude-and-in-flight/): Low Altitude Engine Failure Scenarios In OEI flight at low altitudes and airspeeds such as the initial climb after takeoff, pilots should operate the airplane so as to guard against the three major accident factors: (1) loss of directional control, (2) loss of performance, and (3) loss of flying speed. All have equal potential to be lethal. Loss of flying speed is not a factor, however, when the airplane is operated with due regard for directional control and performance. A takeoff or go-around is the most critical time to suffer an engine failure. The airplane will be slow, close to the ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Go-Around and Rejected Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-go-around-and-rejected-takeoff/): Go-Around When the decision to go around is made, the throttles should be advanced to takeoff power. With adequate airspeed, the airplane should be placed in a climb pitch attitude. These actions, which are accomplished simultaneously, arrest the sink rate and place the airplane in the proper attitude for transition to a climb. The initial target airspeed is VY or VX if obstructions are present. With sufficient airspeed, the flaps should be retracted from full to an intermediate position and the landing gear retracted when there is a positive rate of climb and no chance of runway contact. The remaining flaps ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Short-Field Takeoff and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-short-field-takeoff-and-landing/): Short-Field Takeoff and Climb The short-field takeoff and climb differs from the normal takeoff and climb in the airspeeds and initial climb profile. Some AFM/POHs give separate short-field takeoff procedures and performance charts that recommend specific flap settings and airspeeds. Other AFM/POHs do not provide separate short-field procedures. In the absence of such specific procedures, the airplane should be operated only as recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should be conducted contrary to the recommendations in the AFM/POH. On short-field takeoffs in general, just after rotation and lift-off, the airplane should be allowed to accelerate to VX, making the initial climb ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Crosswind Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-crosswind-approach-and-landing/): The multiengine airplane is often easier to land in a crosswind than a single-engine airplane due to its higher approach and landing speed. In any event, the principles are no different between singles and twins. Prior to touchdown, the longitudinal axis must be aligned with the runway centerline to avoid landing gear side loads. The two primary methods, crab and wing-low, are typically used in conjunction with each other. As soon as the airplane rolls out onto final approach, the crab angle to track the extended runway centerline is established. This is coordinated flight with adjustments to heading to compensate for ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Normal Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-normal-approach-and-landing/): Given the higher cruising speed (and frequently altitude) of multiengine airplanes over most single-engine airplanes, the descent needs to be planned in advance. A hurried, last minute descent with power at or near idle is inefficient and can cause excessive engine cooling. It may also lead to passenger discomfort, particularly if the airplane is unpressurized. As a rule of thumb, if terrain and passenger conditions permit, a maximum of a 500 fpm rate of descent should be planned. Pressurized airplanes can plan for higher descent rates, if desired. In a descent, some airplanes require a minimum EGT or may have a ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-normal-and-crosswind-takeoff-and-climb/): After completing the before takeoff checklist and pre-takeoff safety brief, and after receiving an air traffic control (ATC) clearance (if applicable), the pilot should check for approaching aircraft and line up on the runway centerline. If departing from an airport without an operating control tower, the pilot should listen on the appropriate frequency, make a careful check for traffic, and transmit a radio advisory before entering the runway. Sharp turns onto the runway combined with a rolling takeoff are not a good operating practice and may be prohibited by the AFM/POH due to the possibility of “unporting” a fuel tank pickup. ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Weight and Balance](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-weight-and-balance/): The weight and balance concept is no different than that of a single-engine airplane. The actual execution, however, is almost invariably more complex due to a number of new loading areas, including nose and aft baggage compartments, nacelle lockers, main fuel tanks, auxiliary fuel tanks, nacelle fuel tanks, and numerous seating options in a variety of interior configurations. The flexibility in loading offered by the multiengine airplane places a responsibility on the pilot to address weight and balance prior to each flight. The terms empty weight, licensed empty weight, standard empty weight, and basic empty weight as they appear on the ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Performance and Limitations](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-performance-and-limitations/): Discussion of performance and limitations requires the definition of the following terms. Accelerate-go distance is the horizontal distance required to continue the takeoff and climb to 50 feet, assuming an engine failure at VR or VLOF, as specified by the manufacturer. [Figure 1A] Climb gradient is a slope most frequently expressed in terms of altitude gain per 100 feet of horizontal distance, whereupon it is stated as a percentage. A 1.5 percent climb gradient is an altitude gain of one and one-half feet per 100 feet of horizontal travel. Climb gradient may also be expressed as a function of altitude gain ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Systems and Operation](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-systems-and-operation/): This post deals with systems and equipment that are generally installed in multiengine airplanes. Multiengine airplanes share many features with complex single-engine airplanes. However, there are certain features that are found more often in airplanes with two or more engines. Feathering Propellers Although the propellers of a multiengine airplane may appear identical to a constant-speed propeller used in many single-engine airplanes, this is usually not the case. The pilot of a typical multiengine airplane can feather the propeller of an inoperative engine. Since it stops engine rotation with the propeller blade streamlined with the airplane’s relative wind, feathering the propeller of ... Read more
- [Terms and Definitions for Multiengine Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/terms-and-definitions-for-multiengine-airplanes/): Pilots of single-engine airplanes are already familiar with many performance “V” speeds and their definitions. Twin-engine airplanes have several additional V-speeds unique to OEI operation. These speeds are differentiated by the notation “SE” for single engine. A review of some key V-speeds and several new V-speeds unique to twin-engine airplanes are listed below. Unless otherwise noted, when V-speeds are given in the AFM/POH, they apply to sea level, standard day conditions at maximum takeoff weight. Performance speeds vary with aircraft weight, configuration, and atmospheric conditions. The speeds may be stated in statute miles per hour (mph) or knots (kt), and they ... Read more
- [Transition Training to Complex Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-training-to-complex-airplanes/): Transition to a complex airplane or a high-performance airplane should be accomplished through a structured course of training administered by a competent and qualified flight instructor. The training should be accomplished in accordance with a ground and flight training syllabus. [Figure] This sample syllabus for transition training is an example. The arrangement of the subject matter may be changed and the emphasis shifted to fit the qualifications of the transitioning pilot, the airplane involved, and the circumstances of the training situation. The goal is to ensure proficiency standards are achieved. These standards are contained in the Practical Test Standards (PTS) or ... Read more
- [Airplane Retractable Landing Gear Systems and Operation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-retractable-landing-gear-systems-and-operation/): The primary benefits of being able to retract the landing gear are increased climb performance and higher cruise airspeeds due to a decrease in drag after gear retraction. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated either hydraulically or electrically or may employ a combination of the two systems. Warning indicators are provided in the flight deck to show the pilot when the wheels are down and locked and when they are up and locked or if they are in intermediate positions. Systems for emergency operation are also provided. Due to the complexity of a retractable landing gear system, the pilot should ... Read more
- [Airplane Turbocharging Systems, Operation, and Failure](https://flight-study.com/airplane-turbocharging-systems-operation-and-failure/): The turbocharged engine allows the pilot to maintain sufficient cruise power at high altitudes where there is less drag, which means faster true airspeeds and increased range with fuel economy. At the same time, the powerplant has flexibility and can be flown at a low altitude without the increased fuel consumption of a turbine engine. When attached to the standard powerplant, the turbocharger does not take any horsepower from the engine to operate; it is relatively simple mechanically, and some models can pressurize the cabin as well. The turbocharger is an exhaust-driven device that raises the pressure and density of the ... Read more
- [Airplane Controllable-Pitch Propellers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-controllable-pitch-propellers/): Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one particular revolutions per minute (rpm) setting and one airspeed. A fixed-pitch propeller provides suitable performance in a narrow range of airspeeds. However, fixed-pitch efficiency suffers considerably when operating outside of this range. To provide improved propeller efficiency through a wide range of operation, the propeller blade angle needs to be controllable. Constant-Speed Propeller A constant-speed propeller keeps the blade angle adjusted for maximum efficiency during most flight conditions. The pilot controls the engine rpm indirectly by means of a propeller control, which is connected to the propeller governor. For maximum takeoff power, ... Read more
- [Airplane Flap Function, Effectiveness, and Operation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flap-function-effectiveness-and-operation/): Airplanes can be designed to fly through a wide range of airspeeds. High speed flight requires smaller wing areas and moderately cambered airfoils whereas low speed flight is obtained with airfoils with a greater camber and larger wing area. [Figure 1] Many compromises are often made by designers to provide for higher speed cruise flight and low speeds for landing. Flaps are a common design effort to increase an airfoil’s camber and surface area for lower-speed flight. [Figure 2] Since an airfoil cannot have two different cambers at the same time, designers and engineers deliver the desired performance characteristics using two ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-approaches-and-landings/): When approaching the airport to enter the traffic pattern and land, it is important that the runway lights and other airport lighting be identified as early as possible. If the airport layout is unfamiliar, sighting of the runway may be difficult until very close-in due to the maze of lights observed in the area. [Figure 1] A pilot should normally fly toward the rotating beacon until the lights outlining the runway are distinguishable. To fly a traffic pattern of proper size and direction, the runway threshold and runway-edge lights need to be positively identified. Once the airport lights are seen, these ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Orientation and Navigation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-orientation-and-navigation/): Generally, at night, it is difficult to see clouds and restrictions to visibility, particularly on dark nights or under an overcast. When flying under VFR, pilots should exercise caution to avoid flying into clouds. Usually, the first indication of flying into restricted visibility conditions is the gradual disappearance of lights on the ground. If the lights begin to appear surrounded by a halo or glow, further flight in the same direction calls for caution. Such a halo or glow around lights on the ground is indicative of ground fog. If a descent occurs through clouds, smoke, or haze in order to ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Takeoff, Taxi, and Climb Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-takeoff-taxi-and-climb-procedures/): Starting, Taxiing, and Run-up Once seated in the airplane and prior to starting the engine, a careful pilot will organize and arrange all items and materials to be used during the flight. The pilot should also take extra care at night to clear the propeller area. While turning the rotating beacon ON or flashing the airplane position lights helps alert persons nearby to remain clear of the propeller, the pilot should carefully and methodically scan the area around the aircraft. To avoid excessive drain of electrical current from the battery, the pilot may turn off unnecessary electrical equipment until after the ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Flight Training and Preparation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-flight-training-and-preparation/): Training for Night Flight Learning to fly safely at night takes time and experience. Pilot’s should practice maneuvers at night including straight-and-level flight, climbs and descents, level turns, climbing and descending turns, and steep turns. Practicing recovery from unusual attitudes should only be done with a flight instructor. Pilots may practice these maneuvers with all the flight deck lights turned OFF, as well as ON. This blackout training simulates an electrical or instrument light failure. Pilots should also use the navigation equipment and local NAVAIDs during the training. In spite of fewer references or checkpoints, night cross-country flights do not present ... Read more
- [Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids for Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/airport-and-navigation-lighting-aids-for-night-operations/): The lighting systems used for airports, runways, obstructions, and other visual aids at night are other important aspects of night flying. Lighted airports located away from congested areas are identified readily at night by the lights outlining the runways. Airports located near or within large cities are often difficult to identify as the airport lights tend to blend with the city lights. It is important to not only know the exact location of an airport relative to the city, but also to be able to identify these airports by the characteristics of their lighting patterns. Aeronautical lights are designed and installed ... Read more
- [Airplane Equipment and Lighting for Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/airplane-equipment-and-lighting-for-night-operations/): 14 CFR part 91, section 91.205(c) specifies the basic minimum airplane equipment that is required for VFR flight at night. This equipment includes basic instruments, lights, electrical energy source, and spare fuses if applicable. The standard instruments required by 14 CFR part 91, section 91.205(d) for IFR flight are valuable assets for aircraft control at night. 14 CFR part 91, section 91.205(c)(3) specifies that during VFR flight at night, operating aircraft are required to have an approved anti-collision light system, which can include a flashing or rotating beacon and position lights. However, 14 CFR part 91, section 91.209(b) gives the pilot-in-command ... Read more
- [Pilot Equipment for Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/pilot-equipment-for-night-operations/): As part of preflight preparation, pilots should carefully consider the personal equipment that should be readily available during the flight to include a flashlight, aeronautical charts, pertinent data for the flight, and a flight deck checklist containing procedures for the following tasks: Before starting engines Before takeoff Cruise Before landing After landing Stopping engines Emergencies At least one reliable flashlight is recommended as standard equipment on all night flights. A reliable incandescent or light-emitting diode (LED) dimmable flashlight able to produce white/red light is preferable. The flashlight should be large enough to be easily located in the event it is needed. ... Read more
- [Visual Illusions in Airplane Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/visual-illusions-in-airplane-night-operations/): Visual illusions are especially hazardous because pilots rely on their eyes for correct information. Darkness or low visibility increases pilot susceptibility to error. Two illusions that lead to spatial disorientation, false horizon and autokinesis, concern the visual system only. False Horizon Flying at night under clear skies with ground lights below can result in situations where it is difficult to distinguish the ground lights from the stars. A dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground lights can provide inaccurate visual information, making it difficult to align the aircraft correctly with the actual horizon. An ... Read more
- [Vision and Visual Performance for Airplane Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/vision-and-visual-performance-for-airplane-night-operations/): Due to the physiology of the eye [Figure 1], humans experience diminished vision in low-light conditions. Because vision involves the eyes and brain working together, understanding eye function leads to pilot behaviors that can improve night vision significantly. Anatomy of the Eye Light from an object enters the eye through the cornea and then continues through the pupil. The opening (dilation) and closing (constriction) of the pupil is controlled by the iris, which is the colored part of the eye. The function of the pupil is similar to that of the diaphragm of a photographic camera: to control the amount of ... Read more
- [Airplane Chandelles and Lazy Eights](https://flight-study.com/airplane-chandelles-and-lazy-eights/): Chandelle A chandelle is a maximum performance, 180° climbing turn that begins from approximately straight-and-level flight and concludes with the airplane in a wings-level, nose-high attitude just above stall speed. [Figure 1] The goal is to gain the most altitude possible for a given bank angle and power setting; however, the standard used to judge the maneuver is not the amount of altitude gained, but rather the pilot’s proficiency as it pertains to maximizing climb performance for the power and bank selected, as well as the skill demonstrated. Figure 1. Chandelle A chandelle is best described in two specific phases: the ... Read more
- [Airplane Steep Turns and Steep Spirals](https://flight-study.com/airplane-steep-turns-and-steep-spirals/): Steep Turns Steep turns consist of single to multiple 360° and 720° turns, in either or both directions, using a bank angle between 45° and 60°. The objective of the steep turn is to develop a pilot’s skill in flight control smoothness and coordination, an awareness of the airplane’s orientation to outside references, division of attention between flight control applications, and the constant need to scan for hazards and other traffic in the area. [Figure 1] While the fundamental concepts of all turns are the same, when steep turns are first demonstrated and performed, the pilot will be exposed to: Higher ... Read more
- [Airplane Hydroplaning: Types, Effects, and Prevention](https://flight-study.com/airplane-hydroplaning-types-effects-and-prevention/): Hydroplaning is a condition that can exist when an airplane has landed on a runway surface contaminated with standing water, slush, or wet snow. Hydroplaning can have serious adverse effects on ground controllability and braking efficiency. The three basic types of hydroplaning are dynamic hydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render an airplane partially or totally uncontrollable anytime during the landing roll. Dynamic Hydroplaning Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water on the runway that is at least one-tenth of an inch deep. As the ... Read more
- [Airplane Faulty Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-faulty-approaches-and-landings/): Landing involves many precise, time-sensitive, and sequential control inputs. When corrected early, small errors are often not noticeable. On the other hand, uncorrected errors may place the airplane and occupants in an undesirable state. Since pilot training normally includes exposure to landing deviations and their appropriate remedies, this section covers several common landing imperfections. Low Final Approach When the base leg is too low, insufficient power is used, landing flaps are extended prematurely, or the velocity of the wind is misjudged, the airplane may be well below the proper final approach path. In such a situation, the pilot would have to ... Read more
- [Airplane Simulated Emergency Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-simulated-emergency-approaches-and-landings/): During dual training flights, the instructor should give simulated emergency landings by retarding the throttle and calling “simulated emergency landing.” The objective of these simulated emergency landings is to develop a pilot’s accuracy, judgment, planning, procedures, and confidence when little or no power is available. A simulated emergency landing may be given with the airplane in any configuration. If the simulated power failure occurs while above best glide speed, the pilot allows the airplane to slow (or may even bleed off speed by climbing) until reaching best glide speed. When reaching that speed, the nose can be lowered and the airplane ... Read more
- [Airplane Power-Off Accuracy Approaches](https://flight-study.com/airplane-power-off-accuracy-approaches/): Power-off accuracy approaches and landings involve gliding to a touchdown at a given point (or within a specified distance beyond that point), while using a specific pattern and with the engine idling. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing. The ability to estimate the distance an airplane glides to a landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracy approaches and landings. The distance to be covered largely determines the amount of maneuvering needed to complete an approach from a given altitude. While developing ... Read more
- [Airplane Soft-Field Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-soft-field-approach-and-landing/): Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass, requires unique procedures. When landing on such surfaces, the objective is to touch down as smoothly as possible and at the slowest possible landing speed. A pilot needs to control the airplane in a manner that the wings support the weight of the airplane as long as practical to minimize stresses imposed on the landing gear by a rough surface or to prevent sinking into a soft surface. The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to the normal approach used for operating ... Read more
- [Airplane Short-Field Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-short-field-approach-and-landing/): Short-field approaches and landings require the use of procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a relatively short landing area or where an approach is made over obstacles that limit the available landing area. [Figure 1 and Figure 2] This low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to the performance of flight near minimum controllable airspeeds. To land within a short field or a confined area, the pilot needs to have precise, positive control of the rate of descent and airspeed, and fly an approach that clears any obstacles, results in little or no floating during the round out, ... Read more
- [Airplane Approach and Landing in Turbulent Air](https://flight-study.com/airplane-approach-and-landing-in-turbulent-air/): For landing in turbulent conditions, the pilot should use a power-on approach at an airspeed slightly above the normal approach speed. This provides for more positive control of the airplane when strong horizontal wind gusts, or up and down drafts, are experienced. Like other power-on approaches, a coordinated combination of both pitch and power adjustments is usually required. The proper approach attitude and airspeed require a minimum round out and should result in little or no floating during the landing. To maintain control during an approach in turbulent air with gusty crosswind, the pilot should use partial wing flaps. With less ... Read more
- [Airplane Crosswind Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-crosswind-approach-and-landing/): Most runways or landing areas are such that landings need to be made while the wind is blowing at an angle to the runway rather than parallel to the landing direction. All pilots should be prepared to manage a crosswind situation when it arises. Many of the same basic principles and factors involved in a normal approach and landing apply to a crosswind approach and landing; therefore, only the additional procedures required for correcting for wind drift are discussed here. Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to perform than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to different inputs involved in maintaining accurate ... Read more
- [Airplane Go-Arounds and Rejected Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-go-arounds-and-rejected-landings/): A go-around is a normal maneuver that is used when approach and landing parameters deviate from expectations or when it is hazardous to continue. Situations such as air traffic control (ATC) requirements, unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway, overtaking another airplane, wind shear, wake turbulence, mechanical failure, or an unstable approach are all reasons to discontinue a landing approach. Like any other normal maneuver, the go-around should be practiced and perfected. The flight instructor should emphasize early on, and the pilot should understand, that any approach or landing may result in a go-around. The assumption that an aborted landing is ... Read more
- [Airplane Intentional Slips](https://flight-study.com/airplane-intentional-slips/): A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slips are most often the result of uncoordinated rudder/aileron application. Intentional slips, however, are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed and/ or to adjust airplane ground track during a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles need to be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as a means of rapidly reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps are inoperative or not installed. A slip is a combination ... Read more
- [Airplane Normal Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-normal-approach-and-landing/): Normal approach and landing procedures are used when the engine power is available, the wind is light or the final approach is made directly into the wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected landing point is normally beyond the runway approach threshold but within the first 1⁄3 of the runway. The factors involved and the procedures described for the normal approach and landing also have applications to the other-than-normal approaches and landings discussed in this site. The principles of normal ... Read more
- [Airport Traffic Patterns](https://flight-study.com/airport-traffic-patterns/): Airport traffic patterns ensure that air traffic moves into and out of an airport safely. The direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude at which it is to be flown, and the procedures for entering and exiting the pattern may depend on local conditions. Information regarding the procedures for a specific airport can be found in the Chart Supplements. General information on airport operations and traffic patterns can also be found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations Just as roads and streets are essential for operating automobiles, airports or airstrips are essential for operating airplanes. ... Read more
- [Airplane Elementary Eights](https://flight-study.com/airplane-elementary-eights/): Elementary eights are a family of maneuvers in which each individual maneuver is one that the airplane tracks a path over the ground similar to the shape of a figure eight. There are various types of eights, progressing from the elementary to advanced types. Each eight is intended to develop a pilot’s flight control coordination skills, strengthen their awareness relative to the selected ground references, and enhance division of attention so that flying becomes more instinctive than mechanical. Eights require a greater degree of focused attention to the selected ground references; however, the real significance of eights is that the pilot ... Read more
- [Airplane S-Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-s-turns/): An S-turn is a ground reference maneuver in which the airplane’s ground track resembles two opposite but equal half-circles on each side of a selected ground-based straight-line reference. [Figure] This ground reference maneuver presents a practical application for the correction of wind during a turn. The objectives of S-turns across a road (or line) are as follows: Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications. Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain ... Read more
- [Airplane Turns Around a Point](https://flight-study.com/airplane-turns-around-a-point/): Turns around a point are a logical extension of both the rectangular course and S-turns across a road. The maneuver is a 360° constant radius turn around a single ground-based reference point. [Figure] The principles are the same in any turning ground reference maneuver—higher groundspeeds require steeper banks and slower ground speeds require shallower banks. The objectives of turns around a point are as follows: Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications. Adjusting the bank angle during turns to ... Read more
- [Airplane Rectangular Course Maneuver](https://flight-study.com/airplane-rectangular-course-maneuver/): A principal ground reference maneuver is the rectangular course. [Figure] The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the airplane maintains an equal distance from all sides of the selected rectangular references. The maneuver is accomplished to replicate the airport traffic pattern that an airplane typically maneuvers while landing. While performing the rectangular course maneuver, the pilot should maintain a constant altitude, airspeed, and distance from the ground references. Rectangular course The maneuver assists the pilot in practicing the following: Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight ... Read more
- [Airplane Drift and Ground Track Control](https://flight-study.com/airplane-drift-and-ground-track-control/): Wind direction and velocity variations create the need for flightpath corrections during a ground reference maneuver. In a similar way that water currents affect the progress of a boat or ship, wind directly influences the path that the airplane travels in reference to the ground. Whenever the airplane is in flight, the movement of the air directly affects the actual ground track of the airplane. For example, an airplane is traveling at 90 knots (90 nautical miles per hour) and the wind is blowing from right to left at 10 knots. The airplane continues forward at 90 knots but also travels ... Read more
- [Airplane Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects](https://flight-study.com/airplane-maneuvering-by-reference-to-ground-objects/): Ground reference maneuvers train the pilot to accurately place the airplane in relationship to specific references and maintain a desired ground track. While vision is the most utilized sense, other senses are actively involved at different levels. For example, the amount of pressure needed to overcome flight control surface forces provides tactile feedback as to the airplane’s airspeed and aerodynamic load. It is a common error for beginning pilots to fixate on a specific reference, such as a single location on the ground or a spot on the natural horizon. A pilot fixating on any one reference loses the ability to ... Read more
- [Airplane Ground Reference Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-ground-reference-maneuvers/): During initial training, pilots learn how various flight control pressure inputs affect the airplane. After achieving a sufficient level of competence, the pilot is ready to apply this skill and maintain the airplane, not only at the correct attitude and power configuration, but also along an appropriate course relative to objects on the ground. This skill is the basis for traffic patterns, survey, photographic, sight-seeing, aerial application (crop dusting), and various other flight profiles requiring specific flightpaths referenced to points on the surface. Ground reference maneuvers are the principal flight maneuvers that combine the four fundamentals (straight-and-level, turns, climbs, and descents) ... Read more
- [Airplane Rejected Takeoff, Engine Failure and Noise Abatement](https://flight-study.com/airplane-rejected-takeoff-engine-failure-and-noise-abatement/): Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a takeoff that require a pilot to reject the takeoff while still on the runway. Circumstances such as a malfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration, runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be reasons for a rejected takeoff. Prior to takeoff, the pilot should identify a point along the runway at which the airplane should be airborne. If that point is reached and the airplane is not airborne, immediate action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff. When properly planned and executed, the airplane can be stopped on the remaining runway without using ... Read more
- [Airplane Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb](https://flight-study.com/airplane-soft-rough-field-takeoff-and-climb/): Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use of operational techniques for getting the airplane airborne as quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow and may require climbing over an obstacle. The technique makes judicious use of ground effect to reduce landing gear drag and requires an understanding of the airplane’s slow speed characteristics and responses. These same techniques are also useful on a rough field where the pilot should get the airplane off the ground as soon as possible to avoid damaging the landing gear. Taking off from a soft ... Read more
- [Ground Effect on Airplane Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/ground-effect-on-airplane-takeoff/): Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when the airplane is operating very close to the ground. Ground effect can be detected and normally occurs up to an altitude equal to one wingspan above the surface. [Figure] Ground effect is most significant when the airplane maintains a constant attitude at low airspeed at low altitude (for example, during takeoff when the airplane lifts off and accelerates to climb speed, and during the landing flare before touchdown). When the wing is under the influence of ground effect, there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. As a result ... Read more
- [Airplane Crosswind Takeoff Techniques and Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-crosswind-takeoff-techniques-and-procedures/): While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances when circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise. Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and techniques involved in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those for normal takeoffs. A crosswind affects the airplane during takeoff much as it does during taxiing. With this in mind, the pilot should be aware that the technique used for crosswind correction during takeoffs closely parallels the crosswind correction techniques used for taxiing. Takeoff Roll The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a crosswind ... Read more
- [Airplane Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb](https://flight-study.com/airplane-short-field-takeoff-and-maximum-performance-climb/): When performing takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions, the pilot should operate the airplane at the maximum limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. To depart from such an area safely, the pilot needs to exercise positive and precise control of airplane attitude and airspeed, so that takeoff and climb performance result in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of climb. [Figure 1] The pilot should consult and follow the performance section of the AFM/POH to obtain the power setting, flap setting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed ... Read more
- [Airplane Pre-Takeoff Planning and Safety Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-pre-takeoff-planning-and-safety-procedures/): Before going to the airplane, the pilot should check the POH/AFM performance charts to determine the predicted performance and decide if the airplane is capable of a safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location. [Figure] High density altitudes reduce engine and propeller performance, increase takeoff rolls, and decrease climb performance. A more detailed discussion of density altitude and how it affects airplane performance can be found in the Aeronautical Knowledge section. All run-up and pre-takeoff checklist items should be completed before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area. As a minimum before every takeoff, all engine instruments should be ... Read more
- [Airplane Normal Takeoff and Initial Climb Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-normal-takeoff-and-initial-climb-procedures/): A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind; there are times that a takeoff with a tail wind is necessary. However, the pilot should consult the POH/AFM to ensure the aircraft is approved for a takeoff with a tail wind and that there is sufficient performance and runway length for the takeoff. The pilot should also ensure that the takeoff surfaces are firm and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions along the takeoff path. There are two reasons for making ... Read more
- [Takeoffs and Departure Climbs](https://flight-study.com/takeoffs-and-departure-climbs/): About twenty percent of all yearly general aviation (GA) accidents occur during takeoff and departure climbs, and more than half of those accidents are the result of some sort of failure of the pilot. A significant number of takeoff accidents are the result of loss of control of the airplane. When compared to the entire profile of a normal flight, this phase of a flight is relatively short, but the pilot workload is intense. This section discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in airplanes under normal conditions and under conditions that require maximum performance. Though it may seem relatively simple, the takeoff ... Read more
- [Aircraft Upset Prevention and Recovery](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-upset-prevention-and-recovery/): An unusual attitude is commonly referenced as an unintended or unexpected attitude in instrument flight. These unusual attitudes are introduced to a pilot during student pilot training as part of basic attitude instrument flying and continue to be trained and tested as part of certification for an instrument rating, aircraft type rating, and an airline transport pilot certificate. A pilot is taught the conditions or situations that could cause an unusual attitude, with focus on how to recognize one, and how to recover from one. Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets Given the upset definition, there are a few key distinctions between an ... Read more
- [Upset Prevention and Recovery: Airplane Stalls](https://flight-study.com/upset-prevention-and-recovery-airplane-stalls/): A stall is an aerodynamic condition which occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane’s wings is disrupted, resulting in loss of lift. Specifically, a stall occurs when the AOA—the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind—exceeds the wing’s critical AOA. It is possible to exceed the critical AOA at any airspeed, at any attitude, and at any power setting. [Figure 1] For these reasons, it is important to understand factors and situations that can lead to a stall, and develop proficiency in stall recognition and recovery. Performing intentional stalls will familiarize the pilot with the conditions ... Read more
- [Upset Prevention and Recovery: Slow Flight](https://flight-study.com/upset-prevention-and-recovery-slow-flight/): Flying at reduced airspeeds is normal in the takeoff/departure and approach/landing phases of flight. While pilots typically perform these operations at low airspeeds and close to the ground, pilots learn to maneuver an airplane in slow flight at a safe altitude. During slow flight, any further increase in angle of attack, increase in load factor, or reduction in power, will result in a stall warning (e.g., aircraft buffet, stall horn, etc.), and pilots should react to and correct for any stall indication. Note that stall training builds upon the knowledge and skill acquired from the slow flight maneuver and encompasses the ... Read more
- [Airplane Glides](https://flight-study.com/airplane-glides/): A glide is a basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little or no engine power. Forward motion is maintained by gravity pulling the airplane along an inclined path, and the descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing the forces of gravity and lift. To level off from a partial power descent using a 1,000 feet per minute descent rate, the pilot should use 10 percent (100 feet in this example) as the distance above the desired level-off altitude to begin raising the nose and adding power to stop the descent and maintain airspeed. ... Read more
- [Airplane Descents and Descending Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-descents-and-descending-turns/): When an airplane enters a descent, its attitude changes from level flight to flight with a descent profile. [Figure] In a descent, weight no longer acts solely perpendicular to the flightpath. Since induced drag is decreased as lift is reduced in order to descend, excess thrust will provide higher airspeeds. The weight/gravity force is about the same. This causes an increase in total thrust and a power reduction is required to balance the forces if airspeed is to be maintained. The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that produce the following types ... Read more
- [Airplane Climbs and Climbing Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-climbs-and-climbing-turns/): When an airplane enters a climb, excess lift needs to be developed to overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop more lift results in more induced drag, which either results in decreased airspeed or an increased power setting to maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess thrust available. The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that produce the following types of climb: It should be noted ... Read more
- [Airplane Level Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-level-turns/): A turn is initiated by banking the wings in the desired direction of the turn through the pilot’s use of the aileron flight controls. Left aileron flight control pressure causes the left wing to lower in relation to the pilot. Right aileron flight control pressure causes the right wing to lower in relation to the pilot. In other words, to turn left, the pilot lowers the left wing with aileron by left stick. To turn right, the pilot lowers the right wing with right stick. Depending on bank angle and airplane engineering, at many bank angles, the airplane will continue to ... Read more
- [Aircraft Trim Control and Proper Trimming Techniques](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-trim-control-and-proper-trimming-techniques/): Trim control surfaces are required to offset any constant flight control pressure inputs provided by the pilot. For example, elevator trim is a typical trim in light GA airplanes and is used to null the pressure exerted by the pilot in order to maintain a particular pitch attitude. [Figure] This provides an opportunity for the pilot to divert attention to other tasks. Because of their relatively low power, speed, and cost constraints, not all light airplanes have a complete set (elevator, rudder, and aileron) of trim controls that are adjustable from inside the flight deck. Nearly all light airplanes are equipped ... Read more
- [Airplane Straight and Level Flight](https://flight-study.com/airplane-straight-and-level-flight/): Straight-and-level flight is flight in which heading and altitude are maintained. The other fundamentals are derived as variations from straight-and-level flight, and the need to form proper and effective skills in flying straight and level should be understood. The ability to perform straight-and-level flight results from repetition and practice. A high level of skill results when the pilot perceives outside references, takes mental snap shots of the flight instruments, and makes effective, timely, and proportional corrections from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs. Straight-and-level flight is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship of a reference point on the airplane in ... Read more
- [Integrated Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/integrated-flight-instruction/): When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning pilot, it is recommended that the “integrated” or “composite” method of flight instruction be used. This means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes and airplane performance. When beginning pilots use this technique, they achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability. Although this method of airplane control may become second nature with experience, the beginning pilot needs to make a determined effort to master the technique. In all cases, a pilot’s visual skills need to be sufficiently developed for long-term, safe, and effective ... Read more
- [Airplane Attitude Flying](https://flight-study.com/airplane-attitude-flying/): An airplane’s attitude is determined by the angular difference between a specific axis and the natural horizon. A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent. This is an important concept because it requires the pilot to develop a pictorial sense of this natural horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed between the airplane’s longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose to the tail of the airplane, and the natural horizon. Bank attitude is the angle formed by the airplane’s lateral axis, which extends from wingtip to wingtip, and the natural horizon. [Figures 1A and ... Read more
- [Effect and Use of the Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/effect-and-use-of-the-flight-controls/): The airplane flies in an environment that allows it to travel up and down as well as left and right. Note that movement up or down depends on the flight conditions. If the airplane is right-side up relative to the horizon, forward control stick or wheel (elevator control) movement will result in a loss of altitude. If the same airplane is upside-down relative to the horizon that same forward control movement will result in a gain of altitude. [Figure 1] The following discussion considers the pilot’s frame of reference with respect to the flight controls. [Figure 2] With the pilot’s hand: ... Read more
- [After-Landing, Parking, and Post-Flight Procedures](https://flight-study.com/after-landing-parking-and-post-flight-procedures/): After-Landing During the after-landing roll, while maintaining airplane track over runway centerline with ailerons and heading down runway with rudder pedals, the airplane should be gradually slowed to normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure before turning off of the landing runway. Any significant degree of turn at faster speeds could result in subsequent damage to the landing gear, tires, brakes, or the airplane structure. To give full attention to controlling the airplane during the landing roll, the after-landing checklist should be performed only after the airplane is brought to a complete stop beyond the runway holding position markings. There have ... Read more
- [Human Behavior](https://flight-study.com/human-behavior/): Derek’s learner, Jason, is very smart and able to retain a lot of information, but has a tendency to rush through the less exciting material and shows interest and attentiveness only when performing tasks that he finds to be interesting. This concerns Derek because he is worried that Jason will overlook many important details and rush through procedures. For a homework assignment Jason was told to take a very thorough look at Preflight Procedures and that for his next flight lesson they would discuss each step in detail. As Derek predicted, Jason found this assignment to be boring and was not ... Read more
- [Assessing SRM Skills](https://flight-study.com/assessing-srm-skills/): A learner’s performance is often assessed only on a technical level. The instructor determines whether maneuvers are technically accurate and that procedures are performed in the right order. In SRM assessment, instructors should learn to assess on a different level. How did the learner arrive at a particular decision? What resources were used? Was risk assessed accurately when a go/no-go decision was made? Did the learner maintain situational awareness in the traffic pattern? Was workload managed effectively during a cross-country flight? How does the learner handle stress and fatigue? Instructors should continually evaluate learner decision-making ability and offer suggestions for improvement. ... Read more
- [Teaching Decision-Making Skills](https://flight-study.com/teaching-decision-making-skills/): When instructor pilots discuss system safety, they generally worry about the loss of traditional stick-and-rudder skills. The fear is that emphasis on items such as risk management, ADM, SRM, and situational awareness detracts from the training necessary in developing safe pilots. It is important to understand that system safety flight training occurs in three phases. First, there are the traditional stick and rudder maneuvers. In order to apply the critical thinking skills that are to follow, pilots should develop a high degree of confidence in their ability to fly the aircraft. Next, the tenets of system safety are introduced into the ... Read more
- [Aeronautical Decision-Making](https://flight-study.com/aeronautical-decision-making/): Aviation training and flight operations are now seen as a system rather than individual concepts. The goal of system safety is for pilots to utilize all four concepts (ADM, risk management, situational awareness, and SRM) so that risk can be reduced to the lowest possible level. ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. Risk management is a decision-making process designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action associated with each ... Read more
- [Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)](https://flight-study.com/single-pilot-resource-management-srm/): Single pilot resource management (SRM) is defined as the art and science of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior to and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight. SRM includes the concepts of Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM), Risk Management (RM), Task Management (TM), Automation Management (AM), Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) Awareness, and Situational Awareness (SA). SRM training helps the pilot maintain situational awareness by managing the automation and associated aircraft control and navigation tasks. This enables the pilot to accurately identify, assess, and manage risk and ... Read more
- [Situational Awareness](https://flight-study.com/situational-awareness/): Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight. Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding of the relative significance of these factors and their future impact on the flight. When situationally aware, the pilot has an overview of the total operation and is not fixated on one perceived significant factor. Some of the elements inside the aircraft to be considered are the status of aircraft systems, pilot, and passengers. In addition, an awareness of the environmental conditions of the flight, such ... Read more
- [Pilot Self-Assessment](https://flight-study.com/pilot-self-assessment/): Setting personal minimums is an important step in mitigating risk, and safe pilots know how to properly self-assess. For example, in the opening scenario, the aircraft Mary plans to fly may have a maximum crosswind component of 15 knots listed in the aircraft flight manual (AFM), but she only has experience with 10 knots of direct crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 10 knot-crosswind component without additional training. Therefore, the 10 knot-crosswind experience level should be Mary’s personal limitation until additional training with Daniel provides her with additional experience for flying in crosswinds that exceed 10 knots. Pilots in ... Read more
- [Hazard List for Aviation Technicians](https://flight-study.com/hazard-list-for-aviation-technicians/): AMTs should learn about risk management early in training. Instructors tasked with integrating risk management into instruction can turn to hazard assessments that identify the safety risks associated with the facility being used, the tools used in the procedure, and/or the job being performed. The process for identifying hazards can be accomplished through the use of checklists, lessons learned, compliance inspections/audits, accidents/near misses, regulatory developments, and brainstorming sessions. For example, aviation accident reports from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) can be used to generate discussions pertaining to faulty maintenance that led to aircraft accidents. All available sources should be used ... Read more
- [Three-P Model for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/three-p-model-for-pilots/): As we have just learned with the Identify, Assess, & Mitigate model, risk management is a decision-making process designed to identify or perceive hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of action to mitigate the risk. For example, the Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) model for aeronautical decision-making (ADM) offers a simple, practical, and structured way for pilots to manage risk. [Figure] 3P Model (Perceive, Process, and Perform) To help understand the 3P model, it may be easier to relate this concept to the three steps of the Risk Management Process discussed earlier ... Read more
- [Defining Risk Management](https://flight-study.com/defining-risk-management/): Risk is defined as the probability and possible severity of accident or loss from exposure to various hazards, including injury to people and loss of resources. [Figure 1] All Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) operations in the United States involve risk and benefit from decisions that include risk assessment and risk management. Risk management, a formalized way of thinking about these topics, is the logical process of weighing the potential costs of risks against the possible benefits of allowing those risks to stand uncontrolled. Figure 1. Types of risk Risk management is a decision-making process designed to identify hazards systematically, assess the ... Read more
- [Risk Management and Single-Pilot Resource Management](https://flight-study.com/risk-management-and-single-pilot-resource-management/): “Pull the throttle back!” Lenore, a flight instructor, ordered the learner, Jennifer, as the revolutions per minute (rpm) climbed past past 2,000 on engine start. “I did, I did!” Both Jennifer and Lenore grabbed the mixture and pulled. The engine went from a deafening roar to silence. They looked at each other. “What happened?” asked Jennifer. “I don’t know. Let’s check the engine,” Lenore said. Ten minutes later, they had removed the cowling from the airplane. A quick engine check gave them the answer. The throttle rod-end was not connected to the carburetor arm—no bolt, no nut, just air between the ... Read more
- [Vision in Flight](https://flight-study.com/vision-in-flight/): Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Most of the things perceived while flying are visual or heavily supplemented by vision. As remarkable and vital as it is, vision is subject to limitations, such as illusions and blind spots. The more a pilot understands about the eyes and how they function, the easier it is to use vision effectively and compensate for potential problems. The eye functions much like a camera. Its structure includes an aperture, a lens, a mechanism for focusing, and a surface for registering images. Light enters through the cornea at the front ... Read more
- [Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot Performance](https://flight-study.com/health-and-physiological-factors-affecting-pilot-performance/): A number of health factors and physiological effects can be linked to flying. Some are minor, while others are important enough to require special attention to ensure safety of flight. In some cases, physiological factors can lead to inflight emergencies. Some important medical factors that a pilot should be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, middle ear and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion sickness, carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, stress and fatigue, dehydration, and heatstroke. Other subjects include the effects of alcohol and drugs, anxiety, and excess nitrogen in the blood after scuba diving. Hypoxia Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen.” ... Read more
- [Obtaining a Medical Certificate For Pilot](https://flight-study.com/obtaining-a-medical-certificate-for-pilot/): Most pilots must have a valid medical certificate to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. Glider and free balloon pilots are not required to hold a medical certificate. Sport pilots may hold either a medical certificate or a valid state driver’s license. Regardless of whether a medical certificate or drivers license is required, 14 CFR 61.53 requires every pilot not to act as a crewmember if they know, or have reason to know, of any medical condition that would make them unable to operate the aircraft in a safe manner. Acquisition of a medical certificate requires an examination by an ... Read more
- [Lost Procedures and Flight Diversion](https://flight-study.com/lost-procedures-and-flight-diversion/): Lost Procedures Getting lost in flight is a potentially dangerous situation, especially when low on fuel. If a pilot becomes lost, there are some good common sense procedures to follow. If a town or city cannot be seen, the first thing to do is climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditions. An increase in altitude increases radio and navigation reception range and also increases radar coverage. If flying near a town or city, it may be possible to read the name of the town on a water tower. If the aircraft has a navigational radio, such as a VOR or ... Read more
- [Ground-Based Navigation (Part 2)](https://flight-study.com/ground-based-navigation-part-2/): Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) Many general aviation-type aircraft are equipped with ADF radio receiving equipment. To navigate using the ADF, the pilot tunes the receiving equipment to a ground station known as a nondirectional radio beacon (NDB). The NDB stations normally operate in a low or medium frequency band of 200 to 415 kHz. The frequencies are readily available on aeronautical charts or in the Chart Supplement U.S. All radio beacons, except compass locators, transmit a continuous three-letter identification in code, except during voice transmissions. A compass locator, which is associated with an instrument landing system, transmits a two-letter identification. Standard ... Read more
- [Ground-Based Navigation (Part 1)](https://flight-study.com/ground-based-navigation-part-1/): Advances in navigational radio receivers installed in aircraft, the development of aeronautical charts that show the exact location of ground transmitting stations and their frequencies, along with refined flight deck instrumentation make it possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any point desired. Although precision in navigation is obtainable through the proper use of this equipment, beginning pilots should use this equipment to supplement navigation by visual reference to the ground (pilotage). This method provides the pilot with an effective safeguard against disorientation in the event of radio malfunction. There are three radio navigation systems available for use for ... Read more
- [Filing a VFR Flight Plan](https://flight-study.com/filing-a-vfr-flight-plan/): Filing a flight plan is not required by regulations; however, it is a good operating practice since the information contained in the flight plan can be used in search and rescue in the event of an emergency. Flight plans can be filed in the air by radio, but it is best to file a flight plan by phone just before departing. After takeoff, contact the FSS by radio and give them the takeoff time so the flight plan can be activated. When a VFR flight plan is filed, it is held by the FSS until 1 hour after the proposed departure ... Read more
- [Charting the Course](https://flight-study.com/charting-the-course/): Once the weather has been checked and some preliminary planning completed, it is time to chart the course and determine the data needed to accomplish the flight. The following sections provide a logical sequence to follow in charting the course, complete a flight log, and filing a flight plan. In the following example, a trip is planned based on the following data and the sectional chart excerpt in Figure 1. Figure 1. Sectional chart excerpt Route of flight: Chickasha Airport direct to Guthrie Airport True airspeed (TAS)……………………….115 knotsWinds aloft…………………………………….360° at 10 knotsUsable fuel…………………………………….38 gallonsFuel rate………………………………………..8 GPHDeviation……………………………………….+2° Steps in Charting the Course ... Read more
- [Flight Planning](https://flight-study.com/flight-planning/): Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 states, in part, that before beginning a flight, the pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft shall become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. For flights not in the vicinity of an airport, this must include information on available current weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which the PIC has been advised by ATC. Assembling Necessary Material The pilot should collect the necessary material well before beginning the flight. An appropriate current ... Read more
- [Dead Reckoning](https://flight-study.com/dead-reckoning/): Dead reckoning is navigation solely by means of computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction. The products derived from these variables, when adjusted by wind speed and velocity, are heading and GS. The predicted heading takes the aircraft along the intended path and the GS establishes the time to arrive at each checkpoint and the destination. Except for flights over water, dead reckoning is usually used with pilotage for cross-country flying. The heading and GS, as calculated, is constantly monitored and corrected by pilotage as observed from checkpoints. Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis If there is no wind, the aircraft’s ... Read more
- [Pilotage](https://flight-study.com/pilotage/): Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints. It is a method of navigation that can be used on any course that has adequate checkpoints, but it is more commonly used in conjunction with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation. The checkpoints selected should be prominent features common to the area of the flight. Choose checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features, such as roads, rivers, railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines. If possible, select features that make useful boundaries or brackets on each side of the course, such as highways, rivers, railroads, and mountains. A pilot can ... Read more
- [Basic Calculations for Flight](https://flight-study.com/basic-calculations-for-flight/): Before a cross-country flight, a pilot should make common calculations for time, speed, and distance, and the amount of fuel required. Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours Frequently, it is necessary to convert minutes into equivalent hours when solving speed, time, and distance problems. To convert minutes to hours, divide by 60 (60 minutes = 1 hour). Thus, 30 minutes is 30/60 = 0.5 hour. To convert hours to minutes, multiply by 60. Thus, 0.75 hour equals 0.75 × 60 = 45 minutes. Time T = D/GSTo find the time (T) in flight, divide the distance (D) by the GS. The time ... Read more
- [Pilot Responsibility](https://flight-study.com/pilot-responsibility/): It is important for pilots to understand the realization that the derived safety benefits of data link depends heavily upon the pilot’s understanding of the specific system’s capabilities and limitations which are listed below. Product latency – be aware of the time stamp or “valid until” time on the particular data link information displayed in the flightdeck. For example, since initial processing and transmission of NEXRAD data can take several minutes, pilots must assume that data link weather information will always be a minimum of seven to eight minutes older than shown on the time stamp and only use data link ... Read more
- [Electronic Flight Displays and Multi-Function Display Weather](https://flight-study.com/electronic-flight-displays-and-multi-function-display-weather/): Many aircraft manufacturers now include data link weather services with new electronic flight display (EFD) systems. EFDs give a pilot access to many of the data link weather services available. Figure 1. Information page Products available to a pilot on the display pictured in Figure 1 are listed as follows. The letters in parentheses indicate the soft key to press in order to access the data. Graphical NEXRAD data (NEXRAD) Graphical METAR data (METAR) Textual METAR data Textual terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAF) City forecast data Graphical wind data (WIND) Graphical echo tops (ECHO T,,,OPS) Graphical cloud tops (CLD TOPS) Graphical lightning ... Read more
- [ATC Radar Weather Displays](https://flight-study.com/atc-radar-weather-displays/): Although ATC systems cannot always detect the presence or absence of clouds, they can often determine the intensity of a precipitation area, but the specific character of that area (snow, rain, hail, VIRGA, etc.) cannot be determined. For this reason, ATC refers to all weather areas displayed on ATC radar scopes as “precipitation.” ARTCC facilities normally use a Weather and Radar Processor (WARP) to display a mosaic of data obtained from multiple NEXRAD sites. There is a time delay between actual conditions and those displayed to the controller. The precipitation data on the ARTCC controller’s display could be up to 6 ... Read more
- [Weather Charts](https://flight-study.com/weather-charts/): Weather charts are graphic charts that depict current or forecast weather. They provide an overall picture of the United States and should be used in the beginning stages of flight planning. Typically, weather charts show the movement of major weather systems and fronts. Surface analysis, weather depiction, and significant weather prognostic charts are sources of current weather information. Significant weather prognostic charts provide an overall forecast weather picture. Surface Analysis Chart The surface analysis chart depicts an analysis of the current surface weather. [Figure 1] This chart is transmitted every 3 hours and covers the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Forecasts](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-forecasts/): Observed weather condition reports are often used in the creation of forecasts for the same area. A variety of different forecast products are produced and designed to be used in the preflight planning stage. The printed forecasts that pilots need to be familiar with are the terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF), aviation area forecast (FA), inflight weather advisories (SIGMET, AIRMET), and the winds and temperatures aloft forecast (FB). Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) A TAF is a report established for the five statute mile radius around an airport. TAF reports are usually given for larger airports. Each TAF is valid for a 24 ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Reports](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-reports/): Aviation weather reports are designed to give accurate depictions of current weather conditions. Each report provides current information that is updated at different times. Some typical reports are METARs and PIREPs. Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) A METAR is an observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format. While the METAR code has been adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make modifications to the code. Normally, these differences are minor but necessary to accommodate local procedures or particular units of measure. This discussion of METAR covers elements used in the United States. METARs are issued on a ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Briefings](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-briefings/): Prior to every flight, pilots should gather all information vital to the nature of the flight. This includes an appropriate weather briefing obtained from a specialist at a FSS. For weather specialists to provide an appropriate weather briefing, they need to know which of the three types of briefings is needed—standard, abbreviated, or outlook. Other helpful information is whether the flight is visual flight rules (VFR) or IFR, aircraft identification and type, departure point, estimated time of departure (ETD), flight altitude, route of flight, destination, and estimated time en route (ETE). This information is recorded in the flight plan system and ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Service Outlets](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-service-outlets/): Service outlets are government, government contract, or private facilities that provide aviation weather services. Several different government agencies, including the FAA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the NWS work in conjunction with private aviation companies to provide different means of accessing weather information. Flight Service Station (FSS) The FSS is the primary source for preflight weather information. A preflight weather briefing from an FSS can be obtained 24 hours a day by calling 1-800-WX BRIEF from anywhere in the United States and Puerto Rico. Telephone numbers for FSS can be found in the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Observations](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-observations/): The data gathered from surface and upper altitude observations form the basis of all weather forecasts, advisories, and briefings. There are four types of weather observations: surface, upper air, radar, and satellite. Surface Aviation Weather Observations Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a compilation of elements of the current weather at individual ground stations across the United States. The network is made up of government and privately contracted facilities that provide continuous up-to-date weather information. Automated weather sources, such as the Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS), Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOS), as well as other automated facilities, also play a major ... Read more
- [Understanding Aircraft Performance Charts and Estimation](https://flight-study.com/understanding-aircraft-performance-charts-and-estimation/): Performance charts allow a pilot to predict the takeoff, climb, cruise, and landing performance of an aircraft. These charts, provided by the manufacturer, are included in the AFM/POH. Information the manufacturer provides on these charts has been gathered from test flights conducted in a new aircraft, under normal operating conditions while using average piloting skills, and with the aircraft and engine in good working order. Engineers record the flight data and create performance charts based on the behavior of the aircraft during the test flights. By using these performance charts, a pilot can determine the runway length needed to take off ... Read more
- [Determining Loaded Weight and CG](https://flight-study.com/determining-loaded-weight-and-cg/): There are various methods for determining the loaded weight and CG of an aircraft. There is the computational method as well as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by the aircraft manufacturer. Computational Method The following is an example of the computational method involving the application of basic math functions.     Aircraft Allowances:         Maximum gross weight………………….3,400 pounds         CG range………………………………………78–86 inches     Given:         Weight of front seat occupants………….340 pounds         Weight of rear seat occupants…………..350 pounds         Fuel…………………………………………………..75 gallons         Weight of baggage in area 1………………..80 pounds List the weight of the ... Read more
- [Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity](https://flight-study.com/balance-stability-and-center-of-gravity/): Balance refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft, and is important to stability and safety in flight. The CG is a point at which the aircraft would balance if it were suspended at that point. The primary concern in balancing an aircraft is the fore and aft location of the CG along the longitudinal axis. The CG is not necessarily a fixed point; its location depends on the distribution of weight in the aircraft. As variable load items are shifted or expended, there is a resultant shift in CG location. The distance between the forward and back limits ... Read more
- [Weight Control](https://flight-study.com/weight-control/): As discussed in earlier, Aerodynamics of Flight, weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the center of the Earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and the acceleration acting on the body. Weight is a major factor in aircraft construction and operation and demands respect from all pilots. The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft down toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that counteracts weight and sustains an aircraft in flight. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited by the airfoil design, angle ... Read more
- [Airworthiness Directives and Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities](https://flight-study.com/airworthiness-directives-and-aircraft-owner-operator-responsibilities/): Airworthiness Directives A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other causes. Airworthiness Directives , under 14 CFR, part 39, define the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. ADs are used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify the conditions under which the ... Read more
- [Preventive Maintenance](https://flight-study.com/preventive-maintenance/): Preventive maintenance is regarded as simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts, not involving complex assembly operations. Allowed items of preventative maintenance are listed and limited to the items of 14 CFR part 43, appendix A(c). Maintenance Entries All pilots who perform preventive maintenance must make an entry in the maintenance record of the aircraft. The entry must include the following information: A description of the work, such as “changed oil (Shell Aero-50) at 2,345 hours” The date of completion of the work performed The pilot’s name, signature, certificate number, and type of certificate held Examples ... Read more
- [Minimum Equipment Lists and Operations With Inoperative Equipment](https://flight-study.com/minimum-equipment-lists-and-operations-with-inoperative-equipment/): Under 14 CFR, all aircraft instruments and installed equipment are required to be operative prior to each departure. When the FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept for 14 CFR part 91 operations, it allowed aircraft to be operated with inoperative equipment determined to be nonessential for safe flight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within the guidelines of part 91. The FAA has two acceptable methods of deferring maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91. They are the deferral ... Read more
- [Aircraft Inspections](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-inspections/): Under 14 CFR part 91, the primary responsibility for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition falls on the owner or operator of the aircraft. Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft during the time between required inspections by having any defects corrected. Under 14 CFR, part 91, subpart E, all civil aircraft are required to be inspected at specific intervals to determine the overall condition. The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the aircraft is engaged. All aircraft need to be inspected at least once every ... Read more
- [Aircraft Documents](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-documents/): Certificate of Aircraft Registration Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered with the FAA Aircraft Registry. The Certificate of Aircraft Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times. [Figure 1] Figure 1. AC Form 8050-3, Certificate of Aircraft Registration The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for operations when: The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign country The aircraft’s registration is canceled upon written request of the certificate holder The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped The ownership of the ... Read more
- [Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM)](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flight-manuals-afm/): Flight manuals and operating handbooks are concise reference books that provide specific information about a particular aircraft or subject. They contain basic facts, information, and/or instructions for the pilot about the operation of an aircraft, flying techniques, etc., and are intended to be kept on hand for ready reference. The aircraft owner/information manual is a document developed by the aircraft manufacturer and contains general information about the make and model of the aircraft. The manual is not approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and is not specific to an individual aircraft. The manual provides general information about the operation of ... Read more
- [Angle of Attack Indicators](https://flight-study.com/angle-of-attack-indicators/): An Angle of Attack (AOA) indicator is an important flight instrument that helps pilots monitor the wing’s aerodynamic performance. Unlike airspeed, which can vary depending on flight conditions, an AOA indicator provides real-time information about how close the wing is to reaching its critical angle of attack, making it a valuable tool for improving flight safety and stall awareness. The purpose of an AOA indicator is to give the pilot better situational awareness of the aerodynamic health of the airfoil. This is also referred to as stall margin awareness. More simply explained, it is the margin that exists between the current ... Read more
- [Aircraft Anti-Ice and Deice Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-anti-ice-and-deice-systems/): Anti-icing equipment is designed to prevent the formation of ice, while deicing equipment is designed to remove ice once it has formed. These systems protect the leading edge of wing and tail surfaces, pitot and static port openings, fuel tank vents, stall warning devices, windshields, and propeller blades. Ice detection lighting may also be installed on some aircraft to determine the extent of structural icing during night flights. Most light aircraft have only a heated pitot tube and are not certified for flight in icing. These light aircraft have limited cross-country capability in the cooler climates during late fall, winter, and ... Read more
- [Aircraft Oxygen Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-oxygen-systems/): Crew and passengers use oxygen systems, in conjunction with pressurization systems, to prevent hypoxia. Regulations require, at a minimum, flight crews have and use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes exposure to cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000 feet. Use of supplemental oxygen is required immediately upon exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet. Every aircraft occupant, above 15,000 feet cabin pressure altitude, must have supplemental oxygen. However, based on a person’s physical characteristics and condition, a person may feel the effects of oxygen deprivation at much lower altitudes. Some people flying above 10,000 feet during the day may experience ... Read more
- [Pressurized Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/pressurized-aircraft/): Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons. First, an aircraft flown at high altitude consumes less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude because the aircraft is more efficient at a high altitude. Second, bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by flying in relatively smooth air above the storms. Many modern aircraft are being designed to operate at high altitudes, taking advantage of that environment. In order to fly at higher altitudes, the aircraft must be pressurized or suitable supplemental oxygen must be provided for each occupant. It is ... Read more
- [Aircraft Hydraulic Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-hydraulic-systems/): There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in aircraft, depending on the complexity of the aircraft. For example, a hydraulic system is often used on small airplanes to operate wheel brakes, retractable landing gear, and some constant-speed propellers. On large airplanes, a hydraulic system is used for flight control surfaces, wing flaps, spoilers, and other systems. A basic hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pump (either hand, electric, or engine-driven), a filter to keep the fluid clean, a selector valve to control the direction of flow, a relief valve to relieve excess pressure, and an actuator. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Basic ... Read more
- [Aircraft Electrical System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-electrical-system/): Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14- or a 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical system. A basic aircraft electrical system consists of the following components: Alternator/generator Battery Master/battery switch Alternator/generator switch Bus bar, fuses, and circuit breakers Voltage regulator Ammeter/loadmeter Associated electrical wiring Engine-driven alternators or generators supply electric current to the electrical system. They also maintain a sufficient electrical charge in the battery. Electrical energy stored in a battery provides a source of electrical power for starting the engine and a limited supply of electrical power for use in the event the alternator or generator fails. Most DC generators ... Read more
- [Aircraft Heating System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-heating-system/): There are many different types of aircraft heating systems that are available depending on the type of aircraft. Regardless of which type or the safety features that accompany them, it is always important to reference the specific aircraft operator’s manual and become knowledgeable about the heating system. Each has different repair and inspection criteria that should be precisely followed. Fuel Fired Heaters A fuel fired heater is a small mounted or portable space-heating device. The fuel is brought to the heater by using piping from a fuel tank, or taps into the aircraft’s fuel system. A fan blows air into a ... Read more
- [Aircraft Refueling Procedures](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-refueling-procedures/): Static electricity is formed by the friction of air passing over the surfaces of an aircraft in flight and by the flow of fuel through the hose and nozzle during refueling. Nylon, Dacron, or wool clothing is especially prone to accumulate and discharge static electricity from the person to the funnel or nozzle. To guard against the possibility of static electricity igniting fuel fumes, a ground wire should be attached to the aircraft before the fuel cap is removed from the tank. Because both the aircraft and refueler have different static charges, bonding both components to each other is critical. By ... Read more
- [Airframe Fuel Systems](https://flight-study.com/airframe-fuel-systems/): The fuel system is designed to provide an uninterrupted flow of clean fuel from the fuel tanks to the engine. The fuel must be available to the engine under all conditions of engine power, altitude, attitude, and during all approved flight maneuvers. Two common classifications apply to fuel systems in small aircraft: gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems. Gravity-Feed System The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to transfer the fuel from the tanks to the engine. For example, on high-wing airplanes, the fuel tanks are installed in the wings. This places the fuel tanks above the carburetor, and the fuel is ... Read more
- [Aircraft Turbine Engines](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-turbine-engines/): An aircraft turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion chambers, a turbine section, and exhaust. Thrust is produced by increasing the velocity of the air flowing through the engine. Turbine engines are highly desirable aircraft powerplants. They are characterized by smooth operation and a high power-to-weight ratio, and they use readily available jet fuel. Prior to recent advances in material, engine design, and manufacturing processes, the use of turbine engines in small/light production aircraft was cost prohibitive. Today, several aviation manufacturers are producing or plan to produce small/light turbine-powered aircraft. These smaller turbine-powered aircraft typically seat between three and ... Read more
- [Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)](https://flight-study.com/full-authority-digital-engine-control-fadec/): FADEC is a system consisting of a digital computer and ancillary components that control an aircraft’s engine and propeller. First used in turbine-powered aircraft, and referred to as full authority digital electronic control, these sophisticated control systems are increasingly being used in piston powered aircraft. In a spark-ignition reciprocating engine, the FADEC uses speed, temperature, and pressure sensors to monitor the status of each cylinder. A digital computer calculates the ideal pulse for each injector and adjusts ignition timing as necessary to achieve optimal performance. In a compression-ignition engine, the FADEC operates similarly and performs all of the same functions, excluding ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Combustion](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-combustion/): During normal combustion, the fuel-air mixture burns in a very controlled and predictable manner. In a spark ignition engine, the process occurs in a fraction of a second. The mixture actually begins to burn at the point where it is ignited by the spark plugs. It then burns away from the plugs until it is completely consumed. This type of combustion causes a smooth build-up of temperature and pressure and ensures that the expanding gases deliver the maximum force to the piston at exactly the right time in the power stroke. [Figure] Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel-air ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Starting System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-starting-system/): Most small aircraft use a direct-cranking electric starter system. This system consists of a source of electricity, wiring, switches, and solenoids to operate the starter and a starter motor. Most aircraft have starters that automatically engage and disengage when operated, but some older aircraft have starters that are mechanically engaged by a lever actuated by the pilot. The starter engages the aircraft flywheel, rotating the engine at a speed that allows the engine to start and maintain operation. Electrical power for starting is usually supplied by an onboard battery, but can also be supplied by external power through an external power ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-exhaust-systems/): Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for the cabin, and defrost the windscreen. An exhaust system has exhaust piping attached to the cylinders, as well as a muffler and a muffler shroud. The exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve and then through the exhaust pipe system to the atmosphere. For cabin heat, outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud around the muffler. The muffler is heated by the exiting exhaust gases and, in turn, heats the air around the muffler. This heated air ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Cooling Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-cooling-systems/): The burning fuel within the cylinders produces intense heat, most of which is expelled through the exhaust system. Much of the remaining heat, however, must be removed, or at least dissipated, to prevent the engine from overheating. Otherwise, the extremely high engine temperatures can lead to loss of power, excessive oil consumption, detonation, and serious engine damage. While the oil system is vital to the internal cooling of the engine, an additional method of cooling is necessary for the engine’s external surface. Most small aircraft are air cooled, although some are liquid cooled. Air cooling is accomplished by air flowing into ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Oil Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-oil-systems/): The engine oil system performs several important functions: Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts Cooling of the engine by reducing friction Removing heat from the cylinders Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons Carrying away contaminants Reciprocating engines use either a wet-sump or a dry-sump oil system. In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump that is an integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump system, the oil is contained in a separate tank and circulated through the engine by pumps. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Wet-sump oil system The main component of a wet-sump system ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Ignition System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-ignition-system/): In a spark ignition engine, the ignition system provides a spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders and is made up of magnetos, spark plugs, high-tension leads, and an ignition switch. [Figure] Ignition system components A magneto uses a permanent magnet to generate an electrical current completely independent of the aircraft’s electrical system. The magneto generates sufficiently high voltage to jump a spark across the spark plug gap in each cylinder. The system begins to fire when the starter is engaged and the crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to operate whenever the crankshaft is rotating. Most standard certificated ... Read more
- [Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers](https://flight-study.com/superchargers-and-turbosuperchargers/): To increase an engine’s horsepower, manufacturers have developed forced induction systems called supercharger and turbosupercharger systems. They both compress the intake air to increase its density. The key difference lies in the power supply. A supercharger relies on an engine-driven air pump or compressor, while a turbocharger gets its power from the exhaust stream that runs through a turbine, which in turn spins the compressor. Aircraft with these systems have a manifold pressure gauge, which displays MAP within the engine’s intake manifold. On a standard day at sea level with the engine shut down, the manifold pressure gauge indicates the ambient ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Fuel Injection Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-fuel-injection-systems/): In a fuel injection system, the fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve. The air intake for the fuel injection system is similar to that used in a carburetor system, with an alternate air source located within the engine cowling. This source is used if the external air source is obstructed. The alternate air source is usually operated automatically, with a backup manual system that can be used if the automatic feature malfunctions. A fuel injection system usually incorporates six basic components: an engine-driven fuel pump, a fuel-air control unit, a fuel manifold (fuel ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Induction and Carburetor Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-induction-and-carburetor-systems/): Induction Systems The induction system brings in air from the outside, mixes it with fuel, and delivers the fuel-air mixture to the cylinder where combustion occurs. Outside air enters the induction system through an intake port on the front of the engine cowling. This port normally contains an air filter that inhibits the entry of dust and other foreign objects. Since the filter may occasionally become clogged, an alternate source of air must be available. Usually, the alternate air comes from inside the engine cowling, where it bypasses a clogged air filter. Some alternate air sources function automatically, while others operate ... Read more
- [Propeller](https://flight-study.com/propeller/): The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic principles that apply to any airfoil. It provides the necessary thrust to pull, or in some cases push, the aircraft through the air. The engine power is used to rotate the propeller, which in turn generates thrust very similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift. The amount of thrust produced depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of attack (AOA) of the propeller blade, and the revolutions per minute (rpm) of the engine. The propeller itself is twisted so the blade angle ... Read more
- [Reciprocating Engines](https://flight-study.com/reciprocating-engines/): An aircraft engine, or powerplant, produces thrust to propel an aircraft. Reciprocating engines and turboprop engines work in combination with a propeller to produce thrust. Turbojet and turbofan engines produce thrust by increasing the velocity of air flowing through the engine. All of these powerplants also drive the various systems that support the operation of an aircraft. Most small aircraft are designed with reciprocating engines. The name is derived from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating, movement of the pistons that produces the mechanical energy necessary to accomplish work. Driven by a revitalization of the general aviation (GA) industry and advances in both ... Read more
- [Aircraft Autopilot Systems and Functions](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-autopilot-systems-and-functions/): Autopilot systems help pilots control aircraft attitude, heading, altitude, and navigation during flight. Understanding how autopilot systems operate improves workload management, situational awareness, and flight safety. An autopilot is an automatic flight control system that maintains an aircraft in level flight or on a selected course. It may be controlled directly by the pilot or coupled to a radio or GPS navigation signal. Autopilot reduces the physical and mental demands on a pilot and enhances flight safety. Common autopilot functions include heading hold and altitude hold. The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos connected to ... Read more
- [Aircraft Load Factors and Maneuvering Limits](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-load-factors-and-maneuvering-limits/): Load factor is a critical concept in aviation that describes the forces acting on an aircraft during maneuvers. Understanding how load factor affects performance, stall speed, and structural limits is essential for safe flight operations. In aerodynamics, the maximum load factor (at a given bank angle) is a proportion between lift and weight and has a trigonometric relationship. The load factor is measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity), a unit of force equal to the force exerted by gravity on a body at rest and indicates the force to which a body is subjected when it is accelerated. Any force applied ... Read more
- [AOA Indicators and Stall Margin Awareness](https://flight-study.com/aoa-indicators-and-stall-margin-awareness/): Angle of attack (AOA) indicators provide pilots with real-time information about wing performance and stall margin. Understanding how these systems work can significantly improve flight safety and help prevent loss of control accidents. The FAA along with the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC) is promoting AOA indicators as one of the many safety initiatives aimed at reducing the general aviation accident rate. AOA indicators specifically target loss of control (LOC) accidents. Loss of control is the number one root cause of fatalities in both general aviation and commercial aviation. More than 25 percent of general aviation fatal accidents occur during ... Read more
- [Wing Planform and Design Characteristics](https://flight-study.com/wing-planform-and-design-characteristics/): Wing planform refers to the shape of a wing as viewed from above and plays a major role in aircraft performance. Understanding factors such as aspect ratio, taper, and sweepback helps explain how wing design influences lift, drag, and flight characteristics. Understanding the effects of different wing planforms is important when learning about wing performance and aircraft flight characteristics. A planform is the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above and influences airflow in three dimensions. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are factors in planform design that are very important to the overall aerodynamic characteristic of a wing. ... Read more
- [Wingtip Vortices and Wake Turbulence](https://flight-study.com/wingtip-vortices-and-wake-turbulence/): Wingtip vortices are rotating air currents formed at the tips of a wing as lift is produced. These vortices are a direct result of pressure differences above and below the airfoil and are closely associated with induced drag. Understanding how wingtip vortices form, how they affect aircraft performance, and how they create wake turbulence is essential for safe flight operations. Formation of Vortices The action of the airfoil that gives an aircraft lift also causes induced drag. When an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a pressure differential exists between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The pressure ... Read more
- [Airfoil Design and Pressure Distribution](https://flight-study.com/airfoil-design-and-pressure-distribution/): Airfoil design determines how efficiently a wing produces lift and controls airflow. Understanding airfoil shape, pressure distribution, and wingtip vortices is essential in the study of aerodynamics and aircraft performance. Airfoil Design An airfoil is a shape designed to produce aerodynamic forces as air flows around it. Air acts in various ways when subjected to different pressures and velocities; but this discussion is confined to the parts of an aircraft that a pilot is most concerned with in flight—namely, the airfoils designed to produce lift. By looking at a typical airfoil profile, such as the cross section of a wing, one ... Read more
- [ADM Frameworks: 5P, 3P, and DECIDE Models](https://flight-study.com/adm-frameworks-5p-3p-and-decide-models/): An understanding of the decision-making process provides the pilot with a foundation for developing ADM and SRM skills. While some situations, such as engine failure, require an immediate pilot response using established procedures, there is usually time during a flight to analyze any changes that occur, gather information, and assess risks before reaching a decision. Risk management and risk intervention is much more than the simple definitions of the terms might suggest. Risk management and risk intervention are decision-making processes designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action. These processes involve the ... Read more
- [History of Aeronautical Decision-Making](https://flight-study.com/history-of-aeronautical-decision-making/): The development of aeronautical decision-making (ADM) training has significantly improved aviation safety by helping pilots recognize risks, reduce human error, and make safer operational decisions. For decades, the importance of good pilot judgment, or aeronautical decision-making (ADM), has been recognized as critical to the safe operation of aircraft and accident prevention. The airline industry, motivated by the need to reduce accidents caused by human factors, developed the first training programs focused on improving ADM. Crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews is focused on the effective use of all available resources: human resources, hardware, and information to support ADM, facilitate ... Read more
- [Knowledge and Skill Tests for Pilot Certification](https://flight-study.com/knowledge-and-skill-tests-for-pilot-certification/): Knowledge Tests The knowledge test is the computer portion of the tests taken to obtain pilot certification. The test contains questions of the objective, multiple-choice type. This testing method conserves the applicant’s time, eliminates any element of individual judgment in determining grades, and saves time in scoring. FAA Airman Knowledge Test Guides for every type of pilot certificate address most questions you may have regarding the knowledge test process. The guides are available on-line (free of charge) at FAA website. When To Take the Knowledge Test The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant and more likely to result in ... Read more
- [Becoming a Pilot](https://flight-study.com/becoming-a-pilot/): The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on the type of certificate sought. It should include the ground and flight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills required to safely and efficiently function as a certificated pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The specific knowledge and skill areas for each category and class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR part 61. Eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical requirements can be found in 14 CFR part 61. Recreational Pilot, see subpart D Private Pilot, see subpart E Sport Pilot, see subpart J The knowledge-based portion ... Read more
- [The Student Pilot](https://flight-study.com/the-student-pilot/): The first step in becoming a pilot is to select a type of aircraft. FAA rules for obtaining a pilot’s certificate differ depending on the type of aircraft flown. Individuals can choose among airplanes, gyroplanes, weight-shift, helicopters, powered parachutes, gliders, balloons, or airships. A pilot does not need a certificate to fly ultralight vehicles. Basic Requirements A student pilot is one who is being trained by an instructor pilot for his or her first full certificate, and is permitted to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances. Before a student pilot may be endorsed to fly solo, that student must have ... Read more
- [Selecting a Flight School](https://flight-study.com/selecting-a-flight-school/): Selecting a flight school is an important consideration in the flight training process. FAA-approved training centers, FAA-approved pilot schools, noncertificated flying schools, and independent flight instructors conduct flight training in the United States. All flight training is conducted under the auspices of the FAA following the regulations outlined in 14 CFR parts 142, 141, or 61. Training centers, also referred to as flight academies, operate under 14 CFR part 142 and are certificated by the FAA. Application for certification is voluntary and the training center must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, facilities, and must teach a curriculum approved by ... Read more
- [Pilot Certifications](https://flight-study.com/pilot-certifications/): The type of intended flying influences what type of pilot’s certificate is required. Eligibility, training, experience, and testing requirements differ depending on the type of certificates sought. [Figure 1] Each type of pilot’s certificate has privileges and limitations that are inherent within the certificate itself. However, other privileges and limitations may be applicable based on the aircraft type, operation being conducted, and the type of certificate. For example, a certain certificate may have privileges and limitations under 14 CFR part 61 and part 91. Figure 1. Front side (top) and back side (bottom) of an airman certificate issued by the FAA ... Read more
- [Aircraft Classifications and Ultralight Vehicles](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-classifications-and-ultralight-vehicles/): The FAA uses various ways to classify or group machines operated or flown in the air. The most general grouping uses the term aircraft. This term is in 14 CFR 1.1 and means a device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air. Ultralight vehicle is another general term the FAA uses. This term is defined in 14 CFR 103. As the term implies, powered ultralight vehicles must weigh less than 254 pounds empty weight and unpowered ultralight vehicles must weigh less than 155 pounds. Rules for ultralight vehicles are significantly different from rules for aircraft; ... Read more
- [The Role of the FAA](https://flight-study.com/the-role-of-the-faa/): The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) The FAA is empowered by regulations to promote aviation safety and establish safety standards for civil aviation. The FAA achieves these objectives under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which is the codification of the general and permanent rules published by the executive departments and agencies of the United States Government. The regulations are divided into 50 different codes, called Titles, that represent broad areas subject to Federal regulation. FAA regulations are listed under Title 14, “Aeronautics and Space,” which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation from how to earn a pilot’s certificate to maintenance ... Read more
- [History of the Federal Aviation Administration](https://flight-study.com/history-of-the-federal-aviation-administration/): During the early years of manned flight, aviation was a free for all because no government body was in place to establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards. Individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Most of the early flights were conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were small, many people doubted their commercial value. One group of individuals believed otherwise and they became the genesis for modern airline travel. P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg, approached Tom Benoist ... Read more
- [History of Flight](https://flight-study.com/history-of-flight/): From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of birds, and longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing system, and devices not unlike wing flaps, variable-camber and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to fly. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in attempts to fly like birds. The ... Read more
- [Automation Management for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/automation-management-for-helicopter-pilots/): Automation management is the control and navigation of an aircraft by means of the automated systems installed in the aircraft. One of the most important concepts of automation management is simply knowing when to use it and when not to use it. Ideally, a pilot first learns to perform practical test standard (PTS) maneuvers and procedures in the aircraft manually, or hand flying. After successfully demonstrating proficiency in the basic maneuvers, the pilot is then introduced to the available automation and/or the autopilot. Obviously, in some aircraft, not all automated systems may be disengaged for basic flight. The purpose of basic ... Read more
- [Helicopter Pilot Self-Assessment](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-pilot-self-assessment/): The PIC of an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final authority for the operation of that aircraft. The list of PIC responsibilities is long, and nothing should be overlooked. To exercise those responsibilities effectively and make effective decisions regarding the outcome of a flight, a pilot must have an understanding of personal limitations. Pilot performance from planning the flight to execution of the flight is affected by many factors, such as health, experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude. Exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the controls of an aircraft. Often, pilots thoroughly check their aircraft to determine ... Read more
- [Helicopter Night VFR Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-night-vfr-operations/): While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety in night VFR operations, lighting conditions also have a profound effect on safety. Even in conditions in which visibility and ceiling are determined to be visual meteorological conditions, the ability to discern unlit or low contrast objects and terrain at night may be compromised. The ability to discern these objects and terrain is referred to as the “seeing condition,” and is related to the amount of natural and man-made lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and texture of surface terrain and obstruction features. In order to conduct operations safely, seeing conditions must be accounted ... Read more
- [Helicopter Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-emergency-equipment-and-survival-gear/): Both Canada and Alaska require pilots to carry survival gear. Always carry survival gear when flying over rugged and desolate terrain. The items suggested in Figure are both weather and terrain dependent. The pilot also needs to consider how much storage space the helicopter has and how the equipment being carried affects the overall weight and balance of the helicopter. Emergency equipment and survival gear RELATED POSTS Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards Autorotation Vortex Ring State Retreating Blade Stall System Malfunctions Multiengine Emergency Operations Lost Procedures VFR Flight into Instrument Meteorological Conditions
- [Helicopter Lost Procedures](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-lost-procedures/): Pilots become lost while flying for a variety of reasons, such as disorientation, flying over unfamiliar territory, or visibility that is low enough to render familiar terrain unfamiliar. When a pilot becomes lost, the first order of business is to fly the aircraft; the second is to implement lost procedures. Keep in mind that the pilot workload will be high, and increased concentration will be necessary. If lost, always remember to look for the practically invisible hazards, such as wires, by searching for their support structures, such as poles or towers, which are almost always near roads. If lost, follow common ... Read more
- [Helicopter Multiengine Emergency Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-multiengine-emergency-operations/): Single-Engine Failure When one engine has failed, the helicopter can often maintain altitude and airspeed until a suitable landing site can be selected. Whether or not this is possible becomes a function of such combined variables as aircraft weight, density altitude, height above ground, airspeed, phase of flight, single-engine capability, and environmental response time and control technique may be additional factors. Caution must be exercised to correctly identify the malfunctioning engine since there is no telltale yawing as occurs in most multiengine airplanes. Shutting down the wrong engine could be disastrous. Even when flying multiengine powered helicopters, rotor rpm must be ... Read more
- [Helicopter Ground Resonance](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-ground-resonance/): Helicopters with articulating rotors (usually designs with three or more main rotor blades) are subject to ground resonance, a destructive vibration phenomenon that occurs at certain rotor speeds when the helicopter is on the ground. Ground resonance is a mechanical design issue that results from the helicopter’s airframe having a natural frequency that can be intensified by an out-of-balance rotor. The unbalanced rotor disk vibrates at the same frequency (or multiple thereof) of the airframe’s resonant frequency, and the harmonic oscillation increases because the engine is adding power to the system, increasing the magnitude (amplitude) of the vibrations until the structure ... Read more
- [Helicopter Retreating Blade Stall](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-retreating-blade-stall/): In forward flight, the relative airflow through the main rotor disk is different on the advancing and retreating side. The relative airflow over the advancing side is higher due to the forward speed of the helicopter, while the relative airflow on the retreating side is lower. This dissymmetry of lift increases as forward speed increases. To generate the same amount of lift across the rotor disk, the advancing blade flaps up while the retreating blade flaps down. This causes the AOA to decrease on the advancing blade, which reduces lift, and increase on the retreating blade, which increases lift. At some ... Read more
- [Helicopter Autorotation](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-autorotation/): In a helicopter, an autorotative descent is a power-off maneuver in which the engine is disengaged from the main rotor disk and the rotor blades are driven solely by the upward flow of air through the rotor. [Figure 1] In other words, the engine is no longer supplying power to the main rotor. The most common reason for an autorotation is failure of the engine or drive line, but autorotation may also be performed in the event of a complete tail rotor failure, since there is virtually no torque produced in an autorotation. In both cases, maintenance has often been a ... Read more
- [Helicopter Pinnacle and Ridgeline Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-pinnacle-and-ridgeline-operations/): A pinnacle is an area from which the surface drops away steeply on all sides. A ridgeline is a long area from which the surface drops away steeply on one or two sides, such as a bluff or precipice. The absence of obstacles does not necessarily decrease the difficulty of pinnacle or ridgeline operations. Updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence, together with unsuitable terrain in which to make a forced landing, may still present extreme hazards. Approach and Landing If there is a need to climb to a pinnacle or ridgeline, do it on the upwind side, when practicable, to take advantage of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Confined Area Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-confined-area-operations/): A confined area is an area where the flight of the helicopter is limited in some direction by terrain or the presence of obstructions, natural or manmade. For example, a clearing in the woods, a city street, a road, a building roof, etc., can each be regarded as a confined area. The helicopter pilot has added responsibilities when conducting operations from a confined area that airplanes pilots do not. He or she assumes the additional roles of the surveyor, engineer, and manager when selecting an area to conduct operations. While airplane pilots generally operate from known pre-surveyed and improved landing areas, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Steep Approach](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-steep-approach/): A steep approach is used primarily when there are obstacles in the approach path that are too high to allow a normal approach. A steep approach permits entry into most confined areas and is sometimes used to avoid areas of turbulence around a pinnacle. An approach angle of approximately 13° to 15° is considered a steep approach. [Figure 1] Caution must be exercised to avoid the parameters for settling with power (20–100 percent of available power applied, airspeed of less than 10 knots, and a rate of descent greater than 300 fpm). For additional information on vortex ring state (formerly referenced ... Read more
- [Helicopter Rapid Deceleration and Quick Stop](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-rapid-deceleration-and-quick-stop/): This maneuver is used to decelerate from forward flight to a hover. It is often used to abort takeoffs, to stop if something blocks the helicopter flightpath, or simply to terminate an air taxi maneuver, as mentioned in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). A quick stop is usually practiced on a runway, taxiway, or over a large grassy area away from other traffic or obstacles. Technique The maneuver requires a high degree of coordination of all controls. It is practiced at an altitude that permits a safe clearance between the tail rotor and the surface throughout the maneuver, especially at the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Running/Rolling Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-running-rolling-takeoff/): A running takeoff in helicopter with fixed landing gear, such as skids, skis or floats, or a rolling takeoff in a wheeled helicopter is sometimes used when conditions of load and/or density altitude prevent a sustained hover at normal hovering altitude. For wheeled helicopters, a rolling takeoff is sometimes used to minimize the downwash created during a takeoff from a hover. Avoid a running/ rolling maneuver if there is not sufficient power to hover, at least momentarily. If the helicopter cannot be hovered, its performance is unpredictable. If the helicopter cannot be raised off the surface at all, sufficient power might ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Level-Off and Cruise](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-level-off-and-cruise/): Upon leveling off at cruising altitude, the pilot should allow the airplane to accelerate at climb power until cruising airspeed is achieved, and then cruise power and rpm should be set. To extract the maximum cruise performance from any airplane, the power setting tables provided by the manufacturer should be closely followed. If the cylinder head and oil temperatures are within their normal ranges, the cowl flaps may be closed. When the engine temperatures have stabilized, the mixtures may be leaned per AFM/POH recommendations. The remainder of the Cruise checklist should be completed by this point. Fuel management in multiengine airplanes ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Ground Operation](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-ground-operation/): Good habits learned with single-engine airplanes are directly applicable to multiengine airplanes for preflight and engine start. Upon placing the airplane in motion to taxi, the new multiengine pilot notices several differences, however. The most obvious is the increased wingspan and the need for even greater vigilance while taxiing in close quarters. Ground handling may seem somewhat ponderous and the multiengine airplane is not as nimble as the typical two- or four-place single-engine airplane. As always, use care not to ride the brakes by keeping engine power to a minimum. One ground handling advantage of the multiengine airplane over single-engine airplanes ... Read more
- [Helicopter Weight and Balance](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-weight-and-balance/): It is vital to comply with weight and balance limits established for helicopters. Operating above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of the helicopter and adversely affects performance. Balance is also critical because, on some fully loaded helicopters, center of gravity (CG) deviations as small as three inches can dramatically change a helicopter’s handling characteristics. Operating a helicopter that is not within the weight and balance limitations is unsafe. Refer Aircraft Weight and Balance section for more detailed information. Weight When determining if a helicopter is within the weight limits, consider the weight of the basic helicopter, crew, passengers, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Airframe and Fuselage](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-airframe-and-fuselage/): Airframe The airframe, or fundamental structure, of a helicopter can be made of either metal, wood, or composite materials, or some combination of the two. Typically, a composite component consists of many layers of fiber-impregnated resins, bonded to form a smooth panel. Tubular and sheet metal substructures are usually made of aluminum, though stainless steel or titanium are sometimes used in areas subject to higher stress or heat. Airframe design encompasses engineering, aerodynamics, materials technology, and manufacturing methods to achieve favorable balances of performance, reliability, and cost. [Figure] The major components of a helicopter are the airframe, fuselage, landing gear, powerplant, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Major Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-major-flight-controls/): There are three major controls in a helicopter that the pilot must use during flight. They are the collective pitch control, the cyclic pitch control, and the antitorque pedals or tail rotor control. In addition to these major controls, the pilot must also use the throttle control, which is usually mounted directly to the collective pitch control in order to fly the helicopter. In this post the control systems described are not limited to the single main rotor type helicopter but are employed in one form or another in most helicopter configurations. All examples in this post refer to a counterclockwise ... Read more
- [Airplane Ground Operations](https://flight-study.com/airplane-ground-operations/): All pilots must ensure that they place a strong emphasis on ground operations as this is where safe flight begins and ends. At no time should a pilot hastily consider ground operations without proper and effective thoroughness. This phase of flight provides the first opportunity for a pilot to safely assess the various factors of flight operations including the regulatory requirements, an evaluation of the airplane’s condition, and the pilot’s readiness for their pilot in command (PIC) responsibilities. Flying an airplane presents many new responsibilities that are not required for other forms of transportation. Focus is often overly placed on the ... Read more
- [Flight Instruments for IFR Operations](https://flight-study.com/flight-instruments-for-ifr-operations/): Aircraft became a practical means of transportation when accurate flight instruments freed the pilot from the necessity of maintaining visual contact with the ground. These instruments are crucial to conducting safe operations, and a solid understanding of their inner workings is essential for every pilot. Beyond the basic VFR requirements (airspeed indicator, altimeter, and magnetic direction indicator), IFR operations demand a suite of gyroscopic and reference instruments to maintain attitude and direction in IMC. These include the turn coordinator, sensitive altimeter, clock, artificial horizon, and directional gyro. This chapter explores the systems required by 14 CFR Part 91, organized into pitot-static, ... Read more
- [Primary Flight Display and Glass Cockpit](https://flight-study.com/primary-flight-display-and-glass-cockpit/): Modern aviation has rapidly transitioned from traditional analog instruments to highly advanced glass cockpit systems that significantly enhance pilot situational awareness and flight safety. At the center of this transformation is the Primary Flight Display (PFD), which integrates critical flight data such as attitude, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, and navigation information into a single, easy-to-interpret screen. Supporting the PFD, the Multi-Function Display (MFD) provides additional data including moving maps, weather, terrain, and approach charts. Advanced technologies such as Synthetic Vision and Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B) further improve IFR operations by offering real-time traffic, terrain awareness, and precise positioning using GPS. Understanding ... Read more
- [Flight Management System for IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/flight-management-system-for-ifr-flight/): In the mid-1970s, visionaries in the avionics industry such as Hubert Naimer of Universal, and followed by others such as Ed King, Jr., were looking to advance the technology of aircraft navigation. As early as 1976, Naimer had a vision of a “Master Navigation System” that would accept inputs from a variety of different types of sensors on an aircraft and automatically provide guidance throughout all phases of flight. At that time aircraft navigated over relatively short distances with radio systems, principally VOR or ADF. For long-range flight inertial navigation systems (INS), Omega, Doppler, and Loran were in common use. Short-range ... Read more
- [Gyroscopic Instruments in Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/gyroscopic-instruments-in-instrument-flying/): Gyroscopic instruments are essential components of an aircraft’s flight instrument system, providing pilots with reliable attitude, heading, and turn information when flying without outside visual references, such as during instrument flight conditions (IFR). These instruments operate using the fundamental properties of a spinning gyroscope, primarily rigidity in space and precession. By maintaining orientation independent of aircraft motion, gyroscopic systems enable pilots to accurately control and navigate the aircraft using only flight instruments. Attitude Indicators The first attitude instrument (AI) was originally referred to as an artificial horizon, later as a gyro horizon; now it is more properly called an attitude indicator. ... Read more
- [Aerodynamic Factors in IFR](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamic-factors-in-ifr/): Several factors affect aircraft performance including the atmosphere, aerodynamics, and aircraft icing. Pilots need an understanding of these factors for a sound basis for prediction of aircraft response to control inputs, especially with regard to instrument approaches, while holding, and when operating at reduced airspeed in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Although these factors are important to the pilot flying visual flight rules (VFR), they must be even more thoroughly understood by the pilot operating under instrument flight rules (IFR). Instrument pilots rely strictly on instrument indications to precisely control the aircraft; therefore, they must have a solid understanding of basic aerodynamic ... Read more
- [Aircraft Icing in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-icing-in-instrument-flight/): Icing is one of the most serious weather hazards encountered in instrument flight. Even a thin accumulation of ice can drastically alter an aircraft’s aerodynamic performance, increase drag, reduce lift, raise stall speed, and affect controllability. Because instrument conditions often conceal visual cues of ice buildup, pilots must understand how icing forms, how it impacts aircraft systems and stability, and how to recognize and respond to it promptly to maintain safety. Icing One of the greatest hazards to flight is aircraft icing. The instrument pilot must be aware of the conditions conducive to aircraft icing. These conditions include the types of ... Read more
- [Climbs and Turns in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/climbs-and-turns-in-instrument-flight/): Instrument flight requires precise control of the aircraft in three dimensions without relying on external visual references. Maneuvers such as climbs, turns, and acceleration must be executed using instruments alone, with careful attention to airspeed, pitch, power, and configuration. Understanding how thrust, lift, drag, and bank angle interact during these maneuvers is essential for maintaining safe flight paths, preventing unintentional altitude loss, and achieving accurate navigation under instrument conditions. Mastery of these principles ensures smooth and coordinated flight in both small and large airplanes while minimizing workload and maintaining safety margins. Climbs The ability for an aircraft to climb depends upon ... Read more
- [Trim in Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/trim-in-instrument-flying/): The term trim refers to using adjustable aerodynamic devices on an aircraft to balance control forces so that the pilot does not need to continuously apply pressure on the flight controls. Proper trimming reduces pilot workload and ensures smoother, more stable flight, which is especially important during instrument flight where attention must be focused on flight instruments rather than outside visual references. A common method of trimming is the use of trim tabs. A trim tab is a small, adjustable, hinged surface located on the trailing edge of primary control surfaces such as the elevator, ailerons, or rudder. When the trim ... Read more
- [Air Pressure, Density, and Altitude in IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/air-pressure-density-and-altitude-in-ifr-flight/): The atmosphere is the blanket of gases surrounding the Earth and is the operating medium for all aircraft. Dry air is composed primarily of nitrogen (about 78 percent) and oxygen (about 21 percent), with the remaining one percent consisting of argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases. Although it appears light, air possesses measurable mass and pressure—at sea level, a column of air one square inch in area weighs approximately 14.7 pounds. Nearly half of the atmosphere’s total mass is contained below 18,000 feet, while the rest gradually thins over hundreds of miles above the surface. Because aircraft instruments and performance depend ... Read more
- [Aerodynamic Forces and Performance for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamic-forces-and-performance-for-instrument-flight/): Instrument flying demands a deeper understanding of aerodynamic principles than visual flight because pilots must rely on instruments rather than outside visual cues to control the aircraft. Small changes in attitude or power can produce significant performance differences, especially when operating in clouds, turbulence, or reduced visibility. A solid grasp of basic aerodynamic relationships helps the instrument pilot correctly interpret instrument indications and anticipate how the aircraft will respond. To manage the aircraft safely and precisely, the pilot must understand how airflow interacts with the wings and how that interaction produces lift and drag. Concepts such as relative wind, angle of ... Read more
- [Human Factors and Sensory Illusions in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/human-factors-and-sensory-illusions-in-instrument-flight/): Human factors is a broad field that examines the interaction between people, machines, and the environment for the purpose of improving performance and reducing errors. As aircraft became more reliable and less prone to mechanical failure, the percentage of accidents related to human factors increased. Some aspect of human factors now accounts for over 80 percent of all accidents. Pilots, who have a good understanding of human factors, are better equipped to plan and execute a safe and uneventful flight. Flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) can result in sensations that are misleading to the body’s sensory system. A safe pilot ... Read more
- [IFR Flight Control Sequence](https://flight-study.com/ifr-flight-control-sequence/): The IFR system is flexible and accommodating if pilots do their homework, have as many frequencies as possible written down before they are needed, and have an alternate in mind if the flight cannot be completed as planned. Pilots should familiarize themselves with all the facilities and services available along the planned route of flight. [Figure] Always know where the nearest VFR conditions can be found, and be prepared to head in that direction if the situation deteriorates. A typical IFR flight, with departure and arrival at airports with control towers, would use the ATC facilities and services in the following ... Read more
- [ATC Approach Control Facility and Approach Control Advances](https://flight-study.com/atc-approach-control-facility-and-approach-control-advances/): Approach Control Facility An approach control facility is a terminal ATC facility that provides approach control service in the terminal area. Services are provided for arriving and departing VFR and IFR aircraft and, on occasion, en route aircraft. In addition, for airports with parallel runways with ILS or LDA approaches, the approach control facility provides monitoring of the approaches. Approach Control Advances Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Over the past few years, a new technology has been installed at airports that permits a decreased separation distance between parallel runways. The system is called a Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) and is comprised of ... Read more
- [ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance](https://flight-study.com/atc-inflight-weather-avoidance-assistance/): ATC Radar Weather Displays ATC radar systems are able to display areas of precipitation by sending out a beam of radio energy that is reflected back to the radar antenna when it strikes an object or moisture, which may be in the form of rain drops, hail, or snow. The larger the object, or the denser its reflective surface, the stronger the return. Radar weather processors indicate the intensity of reflective returns in terms of decibels with respect to the radar reflectively factor (dBZ). ATC systems cannot detect the presence or absence of clouds. ATC radar systems can often determine the ... Read more
- [Terminal Arrival Area](https://flight-study.com/terminal-arrival-area/): The design objective of the TAA procedure is to provide a transition method for arriving aircraft with GPS/RNAV equipment. TAAs also eliminate or reduce the need for feeder routes, departure extensions, and procedure turns or course reversal. The TAA is controlled airspace established in conjunction with the standard or modified RNAVapproach configurations. The standard TAA has three areas: straight-in, left base, and right base. The arc boundaries of the three areas of the TAA are published portions of the approach and allow aircraft to transition from the en route structure direct to the nearest IAF. When crossing the boundary of each ... Read more
- [Instrument Approach Procedure Charts](https://flight-study.com/instrument-approach-procedure-charts/): The instrument approach procedure (IAP) chart provides the method to descend and land safely in low visibility conditions. The FAA establishes an IAP after thorough analyses of obstructions, terrain features, and navigational facilities. Maneuvers, including altitude changes, course corrections, and other limitations, are prescribed in the IAP. The approach charts reflect the criteria associated with the United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Approach Procedures (TERPs), which prescribes standardized methods for use in designing instrument flight procedures. In addition to the AeroNav Products, other governmental and corporate entities produce approach procedures. The U.S. Military IAPs are established and published by the Department ... Read more
- [Personal Minimums Checklist](https://flight-study.com/personal-minimums-checklist/): Pilot:________________________________ Date Revised:_________________________ Reviewed with:________________________, (if applicable) Your Personal Minimums Checklist— Is an easy-to-use, personal tool tailored to your level of skill, knowledge, and ability. Helps you control and manage risk by identifying even subtle risk factors. Allows you to fly with less stress and less risk. Practice “Conservatism Without Guilt.” Each item provides you with either a space to complete a personal minimum or a checklist item to think about. Spend some quiet time completing each blank and consider other items that apply to your personal minimums. Give yourself permission to choose higher minimums than those specified in the regulations, ... Read more
- [Certificates, Ratings, and Endorsements](https://flight-study.com/certificates-ratings-and-endorsements/): Flight Instructor Endorsements The authority and responsibility for flight instructors to endorse initial learner certificates, logbooks for solo and solo cross-country, additional aircraft ratings, and flight privileges are outlined in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61. In addition, Advisory Circular (AC) 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors, provides guidance for pilots, flight instructors, ground instructors, and examiners on the certification standards, knowledge test procedures, and other requirements of 14 CFR part 61. By utilizing AC 61-65, the flight instructor does not omit any required endorsement for the rating sought, which ensures standardization. It ... Read more
- [Developing a Test Item Bank](https://flight-study.com/developing-a-test-item-bank/): Developing a bank of test questions is difficult and time consuming. This task demands a mastery of the subject, an ability to write clearly, and an ability to visualize realistic situations for use in developing problems. Because it is so difficult to develop good test items, many instructors rely on commercially-prepared test materials. However, there are a few instructors who write their own questions and maintain them in a database or a system of folders. [Figure 1] Figure 1. A bank of test items makes it easier to construct new tests Written Test Items Supply Type Supply type test items ask ... Read more
- [Managing Risk during Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/managing-risk-during-flight-instruction/): Instructors know the need to manage risk during flight instruction. The risk management techniques are the same as taught to learners, however, there are a few hazards that are unique to flight instruction. The resulting risk can be identified, assessed, and mitigated. For example: Ask the learner to fly specific maneuvers after giving appropriate training. Choose practice locations that provide safe options. Perform maneuvers with sufficient altitude. Stay alert for the unexpected either from the learner or external elements. Be prepared to take over the control of the aircraft. In flight, instructors can manage risk by constantly being aware of potential ... Read more
- [Risk Management Training for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/risk-management-training-for-pilots/): Instructors should teach risk management using a building block approach. This method will be effective with both new pilots as well as existing pilots who have not previously been exposed to formal risk management training. Risk Management Training through the Private Pilot Level A new learner’s exposure to risk management should begin before the first flight and become part of a routine that continues throughout initial training. Instructors should emphasize both practical risk management techniques and skills needed to comply with the Airman Certification Standards (ACS). Pre-Solo Instructor-led and guided risk management training should occur during pre-solo instruction. Risk management should ... Read more
- [Poor Risk Management and Accident Causality](https://flight-study.com/poor-risk-management-and-accident-causality/): Traditional Accident Investigation Taxonomy Aviation accidents are investigated by both the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The role of the NTSB is to determine the probable cause of accidents and make recommendations, while the FAA seeks to determine if the accident revealed deficiencies in pilot training, aircraft certification, air traffic control or another area of FAA responsibility. The two government entities are often assisted by other interested parties, such as aircraft and/or engine manufacturers, in an effort to determine the facts. The NTSB role can be illustrated by looking at a typical accident report. [Figure ... Read more
- [Teaching Risk Management during Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/teaching-risk-management-during-flight-instruction/): Examination of accident data leads to the inevitable conclusion that many aviation accidents involve poor risk management decisions. Therefore, effective risk management is one of the most important skills a pilot needs to learn, understand, and practice as a habit. Since flight instructors continually deal with risk, they quickly become subject matter experts. Instructors know to increase the scope of risk management while teaching. For example, risk management during flight instruction includes a consideration of the dangers from maneuvers performed incorrectly by the learner close to the ground, in addition to all the other risks associated with the flight. Risk Management ... Read more
- [Assessment of Piloting Ability](https://flight-study.com/assessment-of-piloting-ability/): Assessment is an essential component of the teaching process and determines how, what, and how well a learner is learning. A well-designed assessment provides a learner with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build. An assessment should provide direction and guidance to raise the level of performance. Learners must understand the purpose of the assessment; otherwise, they will be unlikely to accept the evaluation offered and little improvement will result. There are many types of assessment but the flight instructor generally uses the review, collaborative assessment (LCG), written tests, and performance-based tests to ascertain knowledge or practical ... Read more
- [Integrated Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/integrated-flight-instruction-2/): Integrated flight instruction is flight instruction during which learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside visual references and by reference to flight instruments. For this type of instruction to be fully effective, the use of instrument references should begin the first time each new maneuver is introduced. No distinction in the pilot’s operation of the flight controls is permitted, regardless of whether outside references or instrument indications are used for the performance of the maneuver. When this training technique is used, instruction in the control of an aircraft by outside visual references is integrated with instruction in the ... Read more
- [Use of Distractions](https://flight-study.com/use-of-distractions/): National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) statistics reveal that most stall/spin accidents occurred when the pilot’s attention was diverted from the primary task of flying the aircraft. Sixty percent of stall/spin accidents occurred during takeoff and landing, and twenty percent were preceded by engine failure. Preoccupation inside or outside the flight deck while changing aircraft configuration or trim, maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing hazardous obstacles during takeoff and climb could create a potential stall/spin situation. The intentional practice of stalls and spins seldom resulted in an accident. The real danger was inadvertent stalls induced by distractions during routine flight situations. ... Read more
- [Sterile Flight Deck Rule](https://flight-study.com/sterile-flight-deck-rule/): Commonly known as the “sterile flight deck rule,” Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 121, section 121.542 requires airline flight crewmembers to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight. As defined in the regulation, critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000 feet except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting. A series of aircraft accidents caused by flight crews who were distracted from their flight duties during critical phases of the flight caused the FAA ... Read more
- [Positive Exchange of Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/positive-exchange-of-flight-controls/): Positive exchange of flight controls is an integral part of flight training. It is especially critical during the demonstration-performance method of flight instruction. Due to the importance of this subject, the following discussion provides guidance on the recommended procedure to use for the positive exchange of flight controls between pilots when operating an aircraft. Background Incident/accident statistics indicate a need to place additional emphasis on the exchange of control of an aircraft by pilots. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who had actual control of the aircraft, particularly between learners and flight instructors. Establishing ... Read more
- [Demonstration-Performance Training Delivery Method](https://flight-study.com/demonstration-performance-training-delivery-method/): The demonstration-performance training delivery method was discussed briefly in The Teaching Process, but the following in-depth discussion is geared to the flight instructor. This training method has been in use for a long time and is very effective in teaching kinesthetic skills so flight instructors find it valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers. The demonstration-performance method is divided into four phases: explanation, demonstration, learner performance with instructor supervision, and evaluation. [Figure 1] Figure 1. The demonstration-performance method of teaching has four essential phases Explanation Phase The flight instructor needs to be well prepared and highly organized to teach complex maneuvers and ... Read more
- [Integrating Instruction Techniques](https://flight-study.com/integrating-instruction-techniques/): A flight instructor uses many instructional techniques during ground instruction, when using simulation, and during hands-on aircraft training. Since flight training costs are high and new aircraft are more complex than in the past, the total training experience should provide a solid base of knowledge and maximize the learner’s time without sacrificing the quality of the end product. This section looks at teaching techniques in greater detail. Ground Instruction Ground instruction can be highly effective if it follows an overall plan designed to prepare the learner for flight. In Planning Instructional Activity, Training Syllabus, Figure 1 shows a ground lesson that ... Read more
- [Practical Flight Instructor Strategies](https://flight-study.com/practical-flight-instructor-strategies-2/): During all phases of flight training, instructors should remember that individuals learn through observing others; therefore, the instructor needs to model safe and professional behavior. The flight instructor should demonstrate good operational sense at all times: Before the flight—discuss safety and the importance of a proper preflight and use of the checklist. During flight—prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating. Instill importance of aircraft control, “see and avoid,” situational awareness, and workload management in the learner. During landing—conduct stabilized approaches, maintain desired airspeed on final, demonstrate good judgment for go-arounds, wake turbulence, traffic, and terrain avoidance. Correct faulty approaches and ... Read more
- [Techniques of Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/techniques-of-flight-instruction/): Flight instructor Daniel decides his learner, Mary, has gained enough confidence and experience that it is time for her to develop personal weather minimums. While researching the subject at the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website, he locates several sources that provide background information indicating that weather often poses some of the greatest risks to general aviation (GA) pilots, regardless of their experience level. He also finds charts and a lesson plan he can use. Daniel’s decision to help Mary develop personal weather minimums reflects a key component of the flight instructor’s job: providing the learner with the tools to ensure safety ... Read more
- [Professional Development](https://flight-study.com/professional-development/): Aviation is changing rapidly, and aviation instructors need to continue to develop their knowledge and skills in order to teach successfully in this environment. The aviation instructor is well respected by other technicians and pilots because instructors have trained extensively to be certificated. Flight instructors undergo comprehensive evaluations and a practical test to obtain a flight instructor certificate. 14 CFR part 147 requires all instructors teaching maintenance subjects to hold an FAA certificate as an aircraft maintenance technician. Successful, professional aviation instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their own qualifications and abilities and are constantly alert for ways to ... Read more
- [Evaluation of Learner Ability](https://flight-study.com/evaluation-of-learner-ability/): Evaluation of a learner’s ability is an important element of instruction. Used in this context, evaluation refers to judging a learner’s ability to perform a maneuver or procedure. Demonstrated Ability Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flight or maintenance instruction is based upon established standards of performance, suitably modified to apply to the learner’s experience and stage of development as a pilot or mechanic. The evaluation considers the learner’s mastery of the elements involved in the maneuver or procedure, rather than merely the overall performance. For example, qualification of learner pilots for solo and solo cross-country privileges depends upon demonstrations of performance. ... Read more
- [Aviation Instructor Professionalism](https://flight-study.com/aviation-instructor-professionalism/): The aviation instructor is the central figure in aviation training and bears responsibility for all phases of required training. The instructor, either pilot or aircraft maintenance technician, needs to be a professional. As professionals, aviation instructors strive to maintain the highest level of knowledge, training, and currency in the field of aviation. To achieve this goal, instructors need to commit themselves to continuous, lifelong learning and professional development through study, service, and membership in professional organizations such as the Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE), the National Association of Flight Instructors (NAFI) and Professional Aviation Mechanics Association (PAMA). Professionals build ... Read more
- [Flight Instructor Qualifications](https://flight-study.com/flight-instructor-qualifications/): A flight instructor needs to be thoroughly familiar with the functions, characteristics, and proper use of all flight instruments, avionics, and other aircraft systems being used for training. This is especially important due to the wide variety in global positioning systems (GPS) and glass panel displays. Each flight instructor should maintain familiarity with current pilot training techniques and certification requirements. Frequent review of new periodicals and technical publications, personal contacts with FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners (DPE), and participation in pilot and flight instructor clinics such as the FAASTeam/SAFE quarterly series of Flight Instructor Open Forums facilitate awareness of current ... Read more
- [Aviator's Model Code of Conduct and Safety Practices](https://flight-study.com/aviators-model-code-of-conduct-and-safety-practices/): Aviator’s Model Code of Conduct The Aviator’s Model Code of Conduct presents broad guidance and recommendations for General Aviation (GA) pilots to improve airmanship, flight safety, and to sustain and improve the GA community. The Code of Conduct presents a vision of excellence in GA aviation. Its principles both complement and supplement what is merely legal. The Code of Conduct is not a “standard” and is not intended to be implemented as such. The code of conduct consists of the following seven sections: General Responsibilities of Aviators Passengers and People on the Surface Training and Proficiency Security Environmental Issues Use of ... Read more
- [Flight Instructor Responsibilities](https://flight-study.com/flight-instructor-responsibilities/): Learning to fly should provide learners with an opportunity for exploration and experimentation. It should be a habit-building period during which learners devote their attention, memory, and judgment to the development of correct habit patterns. All aviation instructors shoulder an enormous responsibility because their learners will ultimately be flying, servicing, or repairing aircraft. Flight instructors may have the additional responsibility regarding evaluation of learner pilots and deciding when they are ready to solo. The flight instructor’s job is to “mold” the learner pilot into a safe pilot who takes a professional approach to flying. Other flight instructor responsibilities can be found ... Read more
- [Aviation Instructor Responsibilities](https://flight-study.com/aviation-instructor-responsibilities/): The job of an aviation instructor is to transfer knowledge. Previous sections have discussed how people learn, the teaching process, and teaching methods. To summarize in brief, instructors help learners meet and exceed established standards. Instructors measure learner performance against those standards and give positive reinforcement along the way. [Figure 1] Figure 1. There are five main responsibilities of aviation instructors Helping Learners Learning should be an enjoyable experience. By making each lesson a pleasurable experience, the instructor helps the learner maintain a high level of motivation. This does not mean the instructor sacrifices standards of performance to make things easy. ... Read more
- [Single-Pilot Resource Management](https://flight-study.com/single-pilot-resource-management/): SRM is the art and science of managing all the resources (both on-board the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior and during flight) to ensure that the successful outcome of the flight is never in doubt. The emergence of very light jet (VLJ) aircraft may also affect air travel. [Figure] Central to their economic success is the concept of single-pilot operations. Since the aircraft is heavily automated, the pilot’s workload may actually be less than the current workload in some high performance single-engine aircraft. This allows more time for the pilot to gather and analyze information ... Read more
- [Scenario-Based Training (SBT)](https://flight-study.com/scenario-based-training-sbt-2/): Improper pilot decisions cause a significant percentage of all accidents and the majority of fatal accidents in light single-and twin-engine aircraft. The goal of SBT is to challenge the learner or transitioning pilot with a variety of flight scenarios to improve decision-making skills. These scenarios train the pilot to manage the resources available in the flight deck, consider hazards, exercise sound judgment, and make timely decisions that promote safety. As defined in The Teaching Process, SBT is a training method that uses a highly structured script of real world experiences to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment. Such training ... Read more
- [Lesson Plans](https://flight-study.com/lesson-plans/): A lesson plan is an organized outline for a single instructional period. It is a necessary guide for the instructor because it tells what to do, in what order to do it, and what procedure to use in teaching the material of a lesson. Lesson plans should be prepared for each training period and be developed to show specific knowledge and/or skills to be taught. A mental outline of a lesson is not a lesson plan. A lesson plan should be put into writing. Another instructor should be able to take the lesson plan and know what to do in conducting ... Read more
- [Training Syllabus](https://flight-study.com/training-syllabus/): Instructors need a practical guide to help them make sure the training is accomplished in a logical sequence and that all of the requirements are completed and properly documented. A well organized, comprehensive syllabus can fulfill these needs. Syllabus Format and Content The format and organization of the syllabus may vary, but it always should be in the form of an abstract or digest of the course of training. It should contain blocks of learning to be completed in the most efficient order. Since a syllabus is intended to be a summary of a course of training, it should be fairly ... Read more
- [Course of Training and Blocks of Learning](https://flight-study.com/course-of-training-and-blocks-of-learning/): Course of Training Whatever the method of teaching, the key to developing well-planned and organized aviation instruction includes using lesson plans and a training syllabus that meet all regulatory certification requirements. Much of the basic planning necessary for the flight instructor and maintenance instructor is provided by the knowledge and proficiency requirements published in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 61 and 65, approved school syllabi, and the various texts, manuals, and training courses available. As discussed in The Teaching Process, a course of training is a series of studies leading to attainment of a specific ... Read more
- [Planning Instructional Activity](https://flight-study.com/planning-instructional-activity/): Susan (learner) and Bill (flight instructor) are flying a lesson scenario which consists of a short cross-country leg to a local airport for some practice landings followed by a return to the home airport located in Class C airspace. While practicing landings at the nontowered airport, Susan notes that the ceiling is lowering, and the crosswind is beginning to increase. In his own mind, Bill is convinced that they can practice landings for another 30 minutes to an hour and still return to home base. However, instead of telling Susan this, while taxiing back after a full stop landing, he first ... Read more
- [Scenario-Based Training](https://flight-study.com/scenario-based-training/): Since flying has become more complex, the focus of training needs to address pilot decision-making and risk management, a concept the authors call Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM). Since SRM training requires practicing the decision-making process in real time and in real situations, a new form of GA training that goes beyond the traditional task and maneuver-based training is recommended. The FITS program emphasizes combining traditional task and maneuver training with Scenario Based Training (SBT) to teach the advanced pilot judgment and risk management skills required in the SRM environment. In many respects, scenario-based training is not a new concept. Experienced ... Read more
- [Critiques and Oral Assessments](https://flight-study.com/critiques-and-oral-assessments/): Used in conjunction with either traditional or authentic assessment, the critique is an instructor-to-learner assessment. These methods can also be used either individually, or in a classroom setting. The word critique sometimes has a negative connotation, and the instructor needs to avoid using this method as an opportunity to be overly critical of learner performance. An effective critique considers good as well as bad performance, the individual parts, relationships of the individual parts, and the overall performance. A critique can and usually should be as varied in content as the performance being evaluated. A critique may be oral, written, or both. ... Read more
- [Choosing an Effective Assessment Method](https://flight-study.com/choosing-an-effective-assessment-method/): When deciding how to assess learner progress, aviation instructors can follow a four-step process. Determine level-of-learning objectives. List indicators of desired behaviors. Establish criterion objectives. Develop criterion-referenced test items. This process is useful for tests that apply to the cognitive and affective domains of learning, and also can be used for skill testing in the psychomotor domain. The development process for criterion-referenced tests follows a general-to-specific pattern. [Figure] The development process for criterion-referenced tests follows a general-to-specific pattern Instructors should be aware that authentic assessment may not be as useful as traditional assessment in the early phases of training, because the ... Read more
- [Authentic Assessment](https://flight-study.com/authentic-assessment/): Authentic assessment asks the learner to perform real-world tasks and demonstrate a meaningful application of skills and competencies. Authentic assessment lies at the heart of training today’s aviation learner to use critical thinking skills. Rather than selecting from predetermined responses, learners must generate responses from skills and concepts they have learned. By using open-ended questions and established performance criteria, authentic assessment focuses on the learning process, enhances the development of real-world skills, encourages higher order thinking skills, and teaches learners to assess their own work and performance. Learner-Centered Assessment There are several aspects of effective authentic assessment. The first is the ... Read more
- [Traditional Assessment](https://flight-study.com/traditional-assessment/): As defined earlier, traditional assessment generally refers to written testing, such as multiple choice, matching, true/false, fill in the blank, etc. Learners typically complete written assessments within a specified time. There is a single, correct response for each item. The assessment, or test, assumes that all learners should learn the same thing, and relies on rote memorization of facts. Responses are often machine scored and offer little opportunity for a demonstration of the thought processes characteristic of critical thinking skills. Traditional assessment lends itself to instructor centered teaching styles. The instructor teaches the material at a low level, and the measure ... Read more
- [Purpose and Characteristics of Effective Assessment](https://flight-study.com/purpose-and-characteristics-of-effective-assessment/): Purpose of Assessment An effective assessment provides critical information to both the instructor and the learner. Both instructor and learner need to know how well the learner is progressing. A good assessment provides practical and specific feedback to learners. This includes direction and guidance indicating how they may raise their level of performance. Most importantly, a well-designed and effective assessment provides an opportunity for self-evaluation that enhances the learner’s aeronautical decision-making and judgment skills. A well-designed assessment highlights the areas in which a learner’s performance is incorrect or inadequate, it helps the instructor see where more emphasis is needed. If, for ... Read more
- [Assessment Terminology](https://flight-study.com/assessment-terminology/): This section presents two broad categories of assessment. The first is traditional assessment, which often involves the kind of written testing (e.g., multiple choice, matching) and grading that is most familiar to instructors and learners. To achieve a passing score on a traditional assessment, the learner usually has a set amount of time to recognize or reproduce memorized terms, formulas, or data. There is a single answer that is correct. Consequently, the traditional assessment usually assesses the learner’s progress at the rote and understanding levels of learning. However, carefully crafted scenario questions can assess higher levels of learning. The second category ... Read more
- [Assessment of Teaching and Learning](https://flight-study.com/assessment-of-teaching-and-learning/): Assessment is an essential component of teaching and learning, and it provides the instructor with immediate feedback on the quality of instruction. Instructors continuously evaluate a learner’s performance in order to provide guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive reinforcement. This section examines the instructor’s role when assessing levels of learning, it describes methods of assessment, and it discusses how instructors may construct and conduct effective assessments. Since learners are different and each situation is unique, instructors individualize an assessment as needed. Aviation instructors can use the techniques and methods described in this section as appropriate. CONTENTS Assessment Terminology Purpose of Assessment ... Read more
- [Test Preparation Material and Future Developments](https://flight-study.com/test-preparation-material-and-future-developments/): Test Preparation Material Test preparation material applies to an array of paper, video, and computer software products that are designed by commercial publishers to help learner applicants prepare for FAA tests. While test preparation materials may be effective in preparing for FAA tests, the danger is that learners may be able to pass a given test, but fail to learn other critical information essential to safe piloting and maintenance practices. FAA inspectors and designated examiners report that learner applicants sometimes exhibit a lack of knowledge during oral questioning, even though many have easily passed the FAA knowledge test. A major shortcoming ... Read more
- [Instructional Aids and Training Technologies](https://flight-study.com/instructional-aids-and-training-technologies/): Instructional aids are devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught. In contrast, training media are generally described as any physical means that communicates an instructional message to learners. For example, the instructor’s voice, printed text, video cassettes, interactive computer programs, part-task trainers, flight training devices, or flight simulators, and numerous other types of training devices are considered training media. In school settings, instructors may be involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, but they often are already in place. An independent instructor may ... Read more
- [Application and Assessment of the Lesson](https://flight-study.com/application-and-assessment-of-the-lesson/): Application of the Lesson Application is the learner’s use of the presented material. If it is a classroom presentation, the learner may be asked to explain the new material. If it is a new flight maneuver, the learner may be asked to perform the maneuver just been demonstrated. In most instructional situations, the instructor’s explanation and demonstration activities alternate with learner performance efforts. Usually the instructor offers corrections and further demonstrations. This is necessary because each learner needs to perform the maneuver or operation the right way the first few times to establish a good habit. Faulty habits are difficult to ... Read more
- [Drill and Practice Method](https://flight-study.com/drill-and-practice-method/): Drill and practice, based on Thorndike’s law of exercise discussed in The Learning Process, predicts that connections are strengthened with practice. The human mind rarely retains, evaluates, and applies new concepts or practices after one exposure. Learners do not master welding during one shop period or perform crosswind landings during one instructional flight. They learn by practicing and applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. Effective use of drill and practice revolves around what skill is being developed. The instructor provides opportunities for learners to practice and while directing the process toward an objective. ... Read more
- [Demonstration-Performance Method](https://flight-study.com/demonstration-performance-method/): Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice, the demonstration-performance method is based on the principle that people learn by doing. In this method, learners observe the skill and then try to reproduce it. It is well suited for the aircraft maintenance instructor who uses it in the shop to teach welding, and the flight instructor who uses it in teaching piloting skills. Every instructor should recognize the importance of learner performance in the process. Early in demonstration and performance lesson, the instructor should identify the most important learning outcomes. Next, explain and demonstrate the steps ... Read more
- [Cooperative or Group Learning Method](https://flight-study.com/cooperative-or-group-learning-method/): Cooperative or group learning organizes learners into small groups who can work together to maximize understanding. Research indicates that learners completing cooperative learning group tasks tend to have better test scores, higher self-esteem, improved social skills, and greater comprehension of the subjects they are studying. Perhaps the most significant characteristic of group learning is that it continually requires active participation in the learning process. Conditions and Controls In spite of its advantages, success with cooperative or group learning depends on conditions and controls. First of all, instructors need to begin planning early to determine what the group is expected to learn ... Read more
- [Electronic Learning](https://flight-study.com/electronic-learning/): Electronic learning or e-learning has become an umbrella term for any type of education that involves an electronic component. [Figure 1] E-learning comes in many formats. It can be a stand-alone software program that takes a learner from lecture to exam or it can be an interactive web-based course. Figure 1. E-learning encompasses a variety of electronic educational media Time flexible, cost competitive, learner-centered, easily updated, accessible anytime and anywhere; e-learning has many advantages that make it a popular addition to the field of education. E-learning is now used for training at many different levels. For example, technology flight training devices ... Read more
- [Problem-Based Learning](https://flight-study.com/problem-based-learning/): In 1966, the McMaster University School of Medicine in Canada pioneered a new approach to teaching and curriculum design called problem-based learning (PBL). In the intervening years, PBL has helped shift the focus of learning from an instructor-centered approach to a learner-centered approach. There are many definitions for PBL, but this site defines it as a learning environment where lessons involve learners with problems encountered in real life and that ask them to find real-world solutions. PBL starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in helping the learner gain a ... Read more
- [Training Delivery Methods](https://flight-study.com/training-delivery-methods/): Today’s instructor can choose from a wealth of ways to present instructional material: lecture, discussion, guided discussion, problem based, group learning, demonstration-performance, or e-learning. In a typical lesson, an effective instructor normally uses a combination of methods. The instructor determines which teaching method best conveys the information and when to use it. For example, Bob lectures in the opening scenario, but after teaching how to compute weight and balance, he uses group learning to reinforce the lecture. Lecture Method In the lecture method, the instructor delivers knowledge via lectures to learners who are more or less silent participants. Lectures are best ... Read more
- [Presentation of a Lesson and Organization of Material](https://flight-study.com/presentation-of-a-lesson-and-organization-of-material/): Presentation of a Lesson How does an instructor keep the attention of a class? The steps in Figure 1 form a guideline for lesson presentation. Many of them can be combined during the actual presentation. For example, consider a video presentation given during the weight and balance lecture. The video adds a multimedia element to the lecture, is a good attention getter, and can visually demonstrate the learning objective. Figure 1. Guidelines for presenting lessons Organization of Material After determining objectives and standards, an instructor formulates a plan of action to lead learners through the course in a logical manner toward ... Read more
- [Preparation of a Lesson](https://flight-study.com/preparation-of-a-lesson/): A determination of objectives and standards precedes instruction. Although some schools and independent instructors may develop their own syllabus, in practice, many instructors use a commercially-developed syllabus. For the aviation instructor, the objectives listed in the syllabus are a beginning point for instruction. Training Objectives and Standards Aviation training involves two types of objectives: performance-based and decision-based. Performance-based objectives help define exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson. As the learner progresses through higher levels of performance and understanding, the instructor should shift the training focus to decision-based training objectives. Decision-based training objectives rely ... Read more
- [Course of Training](https://flight-study.com/course-of-training/): In education, a course of training is a complete series of studies leading to attainment of a specific goal. The goal might be a certificate of completion, graduation, or an academic degree. For example, a learner pilot may enroll in a private pilot certificate course, and upon completion of all course requirements, be awarded a graduation certificate. A course of training also may be limited to something like the additional training required for operating high-performance airplanes. Other terms closely associated with a course of training include curriculum, syllabus, and lesson plan. A curriculum for pilot training usually includes courses for the ... Read more
- [Instructor's Code of Ethics](https://flight-study.com/instructors-code-of-ethics/): While many of the characteristics of effective instructors discussed in the previous post hold true for any instructor, the aviation instructor has the added responsibility of molding an aviation citizen—a pilot or maintenance technician who will be an asset to the rest of the aviation community. The following code describes the concept of a good aviation citizen. An aviation instructor needs to remember he or she is teaching a pilot or technician who should: Make safety the number one priority, Develop and exercise good judgment in making decisions, Recognize and manage risk effectively, Be accountable for his or her actions, Act ... Read more
- [What is Teaching?](https://flight-study.com/what-is-teaching/): Teaching is to instruct or train. Teachers often complete some type of formal training, have specialized knowledge, have been certified or validated in some way, and adhere to a set of standards of performance. Defining a “good instructor” has proven more elusive, but in The Essence of Good Teaching (1985), psychologist Stanford C. Ericksen wrote “good teachers select and organize worthwhile course material, lead learners to encode and integrate this material in memorable form, ensure competence in the procedures and methods of a discipline, sustain intellectual curiosity, and promote how to learn independently.” Process The teaching process organizes the material an ... Read more
- [The Teaching Process](https://flight-study.com/the-teaching-process/): Bob, an aviation maintenance instructor, arrives thirty minutes before a scheduled class to prepare for the lesson he plans to present that day. A quick visual scan tells him the classroom has good lighting, the desks are in order, and the room presents a neat overall appearance. He places his lecture notes on the podium, checking to make sure they are all there and in the correct order. Then, he turns on the computer to ensure the components are working correctly. A quick run of his visual presentation reassures him this portion of his lecture is ready. Next, he counts the ... Read more
- [Developing Communication Skills](https://flight-study.com/developing-communication-skills/): Communication skills need to be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience. The experience of instructional communication begins with role playing during training to be an instructor, continues during the actual instruction, and is enhanced by additional training. Role Playing Role playing is a method of learning in which learners perform a particular role. In role playing, the learner is provided with a general description of a situation and then applies a new skill or knowledge to perform the role. Experience in instructional communication comes from actually doing it and is learned in the ... Read more
- [Barriers to Effective Communication](https://flight-study.com/barriers-to-effective-communication/): It is essential to understand the dynamics of communication, but the instructor also needs to be aware of several barriers to communication that can inhibit learning. The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. These misunderstandings can be identified by four barriers to effective communication: lack of common experience, confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object, overuse of abstractions, and external factors. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Misunderstandings stem primarily from four barriers to effective communication Lack of Common Experience Lack of common experience between the communicator (instructor) and the receiver (learner) is probably the ... Read more
- [Basic Elements of Communication](https://flight-study.com/basic-elements-of-communication/): Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group of people. The effectiveness of the communication is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received. The process of communication is composed of three elements: Source (sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor) Symbols used in composing and transmitting the message (words or signs [model prop/desk lamp in Figure 1]) Receiver (listener, reader, decoder, or learner) Figure 1. An aviation instructor communicates with her learner using model airplanes to ensure the learner’s understanding of the principles discussed The three elements are dynamically ... Read more
- [Effective Communication](https://flight-study.com/effective-communication/): Carol, a flight instructor, has planned the first tailwheel flight with Jacob, her learner pilot. She begins the preflight briefing with an explanation of the tendency of tailwheel aircraft to yaw in normal takeoff. This yawing tendency gives the illusion that the tailwheel aircraft is unstable during the takeoff. Since this yawing tendency occurs on every takeoff, it is predictable and the pilot is able to compensate for it. Carol then discusses the precession, which causes the noticeable yaw when the tail is raised from a three-point attitude to a level flight attitude. This change of attitude tilts the horizontal axis ... Read more
- [Transfer of Learning](https://flight-study.com/transfer-of-learning/): Transfer of learning is broadly defined as the ability to apply knowledge or procedures learned in one context to new contexts. Learning occurs more quickly and he or she develops a deeper understanding of the task if he or she brings some knowledge or skills from previous learning. A positive transfer of learning occurs when the individual practices under a variety of conditions, underscoring again the value of SBT. A distinction is commonly made between near and far transfer. Near transfer consists of transfer from initial learning that is situated in a given setting to ones that are closely related. Far ... Read more
- [Retention of Learning](https://flight-study.com/retention-of-learning/): Each of the theories of forgetting implies that when a person forgets something, it is not actually lost. Rather, it is simply unavailable for recall. The instructor’s problem is how to make certain that the learner’s learning is readily available for recall. The following suggestions can help. Teach thoroughly and with meaning. Material thoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting. This is suggested by experimental studies and it also was pointed out in the sections on skill learning. Meaningful learning builds patterns of relationships in the learner’s consciousness, which is one reason to conduct SBT. In contrast, rote learning is superficial ... Read more
- [Memory](https://flight-study.com/memory/): Memory is the vital link between the learner learning/retaining information and the cognitive process of applying what is learned. It is the ability of people and other organisms to encode (initial perception and registration of information), store (retention of encoded information over time), and retrieve (processes involved in using stored information) information. [Figure] When a person successfully recalls a past experience (or skill), information about the experience has been encoded, stored, and retrieved. Information processing within the sensory register, working on short-term memory, and long-term memory includes complex coding, sorting, storing, and recall functions Although there is no universal agreement of ... Read more
- [Errors](https://flight-study.com/errors/): Errors are a natural part of human performance. Beginners, as well as the most highly skilled experts, are vulnerable to error, and this is perhaps the most important thing to understand about error. To believe people can eliminate errors from their performance is to commit the biggest error of all. Instructors and learners alike should be prepared for occasional errors by learning about common kinds of errors, how errors can be minimized, how to learn from errors, and how to recover from errors when they are made. Kinds of Errors There are two kinds of errors: slips and mistakes. Slip A ... Read more
- [Scenario-Based Training (SBT)](https://flight-study.com/scenario-based-training-sbt/): Research and practical experience have demonstrated the usefulness of practicing in realistic scenarios—ones that resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills are later used. Instructors should devise scenarios that allow learners to practice what they have learned. This is challenging because different learners need to practice different things at different times, and because different working environments present different practice opportunities. What makes a good scenario? A good scenario: Has a clear set of objectives. Is tailored to the needs of the learner. Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment. For example, Bill is introducing Beverly to a low-fuel emergency. ... Read more
- [Putting It All Together](https://flight-study.com/putting-it-all-together/): Many skills are taught before a learner can fly an airplane or a maintenance learner can rebuild an aircraft engine. Just as practicing scales is a fundamental part of learning to play the piano, the learner does not “make music” until the ability to combine the notes in a variety of ways is acquired. For the learner pilot or technician, practicing specific skills is essential, but flying a cross-country trip or repairing a collapsed landing gear requires “putting it all together” in the right way to achieve success. The following section looks at the challenge of learning to perform several tasks ... Read more
- [Evaluation Versus Critique](https://flight-study.com/evaluation-versus-critique/): In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical suggestions are more valuable to the learner than a grade. Early evaluation is usually teacher oriented. It provides a check on teaching effectiveness, can be used to predict learner outcomes, and can help the teacher locate special problem areas. The observations on which the evaluations are based also can identify the learner’s strengths and weaknesses, a prerequisite for making constructive criticism. For additional information, refer to Assessment. As a learner practices a skill, it is important he or she perform the skill correctly and that the skill being practiced is one that needs ... Read more
- [Types of Practice](https://flight-study.com/types-of-practice/): Once a learner learns the skill, it is important to continue some practice to improve retention, but the power law of practice raises the question of whether or not there is a point at which continued practice no longer leads to improvement. Since athletic coaches, among others, are very interested in maximizing performance, much research has been done on the subject. Within the last few years, research has shown that how practice is structured makes an important impact on how well people retain what they have learned. There are three types of practice, each of which yields particular results in acquiring ... Read more
- [Acquiring Skill Knowledge](https://flight-study.com/acquiring-skill-knowledge/): An aviation instructor also helps a learner acquire skill knowledge, which is knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills and in cognitive or mental skills, that manifests itself in the doing of something. Thus, skill knowledge differs from declarative knowledge because the learner is not usually aware of it consciously or able to articulate the skill. Evidence of skill knowledge is gained through observations of performance. This knowledge of how to do things is based on extensive practice, which leads to the storage of skill knowledge. An everyday example of skill knowledge is the ability to ride a bicycle. Skill knowledge ... Read more
- [Learning Styles](https://flight-study.com/learning-styles/): Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning based on the fact that people absorb and process information in different ways. Learning style is an individual’s preference for understanding experiences and changing them into knowledge. It denotes the typical strategy a learner adopts in a learning situation. For example, information may be learned in a variety of ways: by seeing or hearing, by reflecting or acting, analyzing or visualizing, or it may be learned piecemeal or steadily. Just as people learn differently, they also have different teaching methods. Some instructors rely on lectures, others demonstrate, and others may prefer ... Read more
- [Characteristics of Learning](https://flight-study.com/characteristics-of-learning/): The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a person’s lifetime. To understand how people learn, it is necessary to understand what happens to the individual during the process. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree there are many characteristics of learning. Knowledge of the general characteristics of learning help an aviation instructor use them in a learning situation. If learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, then instruction needs to include a careful and systematic creation of those experiences that promote learning. This process ... Read more
- [Domains of Learning](https://flight-study.com/domains-of-learning/): As mentioned during the discussion of Cognitive Theory, Dr. Bloom played a central role in transforming the field of educational psychology. Interested in what and how people learn, he proposed a framework to help understand the major areas of learning and thinking. He first classified them into three large groups [Figure 1] called the domains of learning: Figure 1. An overview of the three learning domains Cognitive (thinking) Affective (feeling) Psychomotor (doing) Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain is one of the best known educational domains. It includes remembering specific facts (content knowledge) and concepts that help develop intellectual abilities and skills. ... Read more
- [Thorndike and the Laws of Learning](https://flight-study.com/thorndike-and-the-laws-of-learning/): One of the pioneers of educational psychology, E.L. Thorndike formulated three laws of learning in the early 20th century. [Figure] These laws are universally accepted and apply to all kinds of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect. Since Thorndike set down his laws, three more have been added: the law of primacy, the law of intensity, and the law of recency. E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949) Readiness The basic needs of the learner need to be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning (see Human Behavior). The instructor can do ... Read more
- [Acquiring Knowledge](https://flight-study.com/acquiring-knowledge/): Part of an aviation instructor’s job is helping learners acquire knowledge. In this context, knowledge refers to information that humans are consciously aware of and can articulate. For example, knowledge of the fuel capacity of a particular aircraft, understanding how an internal combustion engine works, and the ability to determine the weight and balance of an aircraft are examples of knowledge. A learner acquires knowledge through memorization, understanding, and application Figure shows the three phases of knowledge, a progression of how learners acquire knowledge. Some practical considerations about learning new knowledge and instructor actions that help learners acquire knowledge are summarized. ... Read more
- [Insight](https://flight-study.com/insight/): Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities. To ensure that this occurs, it is essential to keep each learner constantly receptive to new experiences and to help them understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task. For example, during straight-and-level flight in an aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller, the revolutions per minute (rpm) increase when the throttle is opened and decrease when it is closed. On the other hand, rpm changes can also result from changes in aircraft pitch attitude without changes ... Read more
- [Perceptions](https://flight-study.com/perceptions/): Initially, all learning comes from perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Psychologists have also found that learning occurs most rapidly when information is received through more than one sense. [Figure] Most learning occurs through sight, but the combination of sight and hearing accounts for about 88 percent of all perception Perception involves more than the reception of stimuli from the five senses; it also involves a person giving meaning to sensations. People base their actions on the way they believe things to be. The experienced AMT, ... Read more
- [Learning Theory](https://flight-study.com/learning-theory/): Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Primary learning theories include classical and operant conditioning and social learning. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Learning theories of psychology include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning Classical conditioning is learning based on an association made between a neutral environmental stimulus and a natural stimulus. For example, the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov discovered that a dog could be trained to associate the sound of a beating metronome with being fed. Pavlov would start the metronome before presenting the dog with ... Read more
- [The Learning Process](https://flight-study.com/the-learning-process/): The First Flight When Beverly (learner) enthusiastically presents herself for her first day of flight instruction, Bill, her flight instructor, decides to spend some time in the classroom. Beverly knows a lot of facts about flying and shares her knowledge with Bill, but when he asks questions to test her understanding of the facts, she cannot answer them. During their first flight, Bill discovers Beverly has mastered a few basic skills but her performance is awkward, as if she were working from a list of memorized steps. In the early stages of flight training, Beverly focuses all her attention on performing ... Read more
- [Teaching the Adult Learner](https://flight-study.com/teaching-the-adult-learner/): While aviation instructors teach learners of all ages, the average aviation learner age is 30 years old. This means the aviation instructor needs to be versed in the needs of adult learners. The field of adult education is relatively young, having been established in the late twentieth century by Dr. Malcolm Knowles. His research revealed certain traits that need to be recognized when teaching adult learners as well as ways instructors can use these traits to teach older learners. Adults as learners possess the following characteristics: Adults who are motivated to seek out a learning experience do so primarily because they ... Read more
- [AMTs and Flight Instructors as Learners](https://flight-study.com/amts-and-flight-instructors-as-learners/): Both AMTs and flight instructors sometimes deal with new or unfamiliar technology. For instance, an instructor flying a different aircraft may have to manage a particular system or avionics suite for the first time. Likewise, the AMT who is accustomed to working with one type of aircraft has developed analytical processes that may not transfer to another aircraft as well as expected. In both cases, the instructors may be very highly experienced, but change and its associated stress may have risk consequences. Technological advances in aircraft, powerplants, and systems can outpace the knowledge of flight instructors and AMTs if they don’t ... Read more
- [Learner Emotional Reactions](https://flight-study.com/learner-emotional-reactions/): While it is not necessary for a flight instructor to be a certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to analyze learner behavior before and during each flight lesson. This ability helps a flight instructor develop and use appropriate techniques for instruction yet to occur. Anxiety Anxiety is probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction. This is true because flying is a potentially threatening experience for those who are not accustomed to flying and the fear of falling is universal in human beings. While anxiety is a factor associated with aviation activities where lives depend on consistently doing ... Read more
- [Defense Mechanisms](https://flight-study.com/defense-mechanisms/): Defense mechanisms can be biological or psychological. The biological defense mechanism is a physiological response that protects or preserves organisms. For example, when humans experience a danger or a threat, the “fight or flight” response kicks in. Adrenaline and other chemicals are activated and physical symptoms such as rapid heart rate and increased blood pressure occur. For example, when an anxious learner pilot reacts to impending and full stalls during practice, the anxiety that the learner pilot may feel may resolve itself into a “fight or flight” response. There may be limited time to analyze the problem. Therefore, the learner needs ... Read more
- [Human Nature and Motivation](https://flight-study.com/human-nature-and-motivation/): Human nature refers to the general psychological characteristics, feelings, and behavioral traits shared by all humans. Consider Jason, who came to aviation because he wanted to participate more actively in another realm of his business. Derek needs to capitalize on this motivation to keep Jason interested in the step-by-step procedures that need to be learned in order to fly safely. There is a gap between Jason and his goal of earning a pilot certificate. It is Derek’s job to close the gap. The successful instructor channels learner motivation and guides the learner toward the goal of obtaining aviation skills through education, ... Read more
- [Human Needs and Motivation](https://flight-study.com/human-needs-and-motivation/): Human needs are things all humans require for normal growth and development. These needs have been studied by psychologists and categorized in a number of ways. Henry A. Murray, one of the founders of personality psychology who was active in developing a theory of motivation, identified a list of core psychological needs in 1938. He described these needs as being either primary (based on biological needs, such as the need for food) or secondary (generally psychological, such as the need for independence). Murray believed the interplay of these needs produce distinct personality types and are internal influences on behavior. Murray’s research ... Read more
- [Maintaining Motivation](https://flight-study.com/maintaining-motivation/): Motivation is generally not something that can be transferred from one person to another. Instructors should become skillful at recognizing problems with motivation and at encouraging learners to continue to do their best. Rewarding Success Positive feedback encourages learners. Practice positive feedback frequently by: Praising incremental successes during training. Relating daily accomplishments to lesson objectives. Commenting favorably on learner progress and level ability. For example, as the learner progresses through training, remark on the milestones. When a learner first performs a task alone, congratulate him or her on having learned it. When that same skill reaches an intermediate level, point out ... Read more
- [Motivation](https://flight-study.com/motivation/): Motivation is the reason one acts or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals. A goal is the object of a person’s effort. Motivation prompts learners to engage in hard work and affects learner success. Being smart or coordinated seldom guarantees success, but motivation routinely propels learners to the top. An important part of an aviation instructor’s job is to discover what motivates each learner and to use this information to encourage him or her to work hard. Motivation is probably the dominant force that governs the learner’s progress and ability to understand and can be ... Read more
- [Definitions of Human Behavior](https://flight-study.com/definitions-of-human-behavior/): The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why humans function the way they do. A complex topic, human behavior is a product both of innate human nature and of individual experience and environment. Definitions of human behavior abound, depending on the field of study. In the scientific world, human behavior is seen as the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways. For example, speaking in public is very high on the list of fears many people have. While no two people react the same to any given fear, fear itself does trigger ... Read more
- [Before Takeoff Check and Takeoff Checks](https://flight-study.com/before-takeoff-check-and-takeoff-checks/): Before-Takeoff Check The before-takeoff check is the systematic AFM/POH procedure for checking the engine, controls, systems, instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, the before-takeoff checklist is performed after taxiing to a run-up position near the takeoff end of the runway. Many engines require that the oil temperature reach a minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before takeoff power is applied. Taxiing to the run-up position usually allows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating temperature; however, the pilot should verify that the oil temperature is within the proper range prior to the application ... Read more
- [Airplane Taxiing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-taxiing/): Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the surface. Since an airplane is moved under its own power between a parking area and the runway, the pilot needs to understand and be proficient in taxi procedures. A pilot should maintain situational awareness of the ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and the persons, equipment and aircraft at all times. Without such awareness, safety may be compromised. Depending on the airport, the parking, ramp, and taxiways may or may not be controlled. As such, it is important that the pilot completely understands the operating environment. ... Read more
- [Engine Starting and Hand Propping](https://flight-study.com/engine-starting-and-hand-propping/): Engine Starting Airplane engines vary substantially and specific procedures for engine starting should be accomplished in reference to the approved engine start checklist as detailed in the airplane’s AFM/POH. However, some generally accepted hazard mitigation practices and procedures are outlined in this section. Prior to engine start, the pilot needs to ensure that the ramp area surrounding the airplane is clear of persons, equipment, and other hazards that could come into contact with the airplane or the propeller. Also, the pilot should check what is behind the airplane prior to engine start as standard practice. A propeller or other engine thrust ... Read more
- [Aircraft Ground Operations](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-ground-operations/): The airport ramp can be a complex environment with airport personnel, passengers, trucks, other vehicles, aircraft, and errant people and animals. The pilot is responsible for the operation of the airplane and should operate safely at all times. Ground operations subject the pilot to unique hazards, and mitigating those hazards requires proper planning and good situational awareness in the ground environment. A mitigation tactic involves reviewing the airport diagram prior to operating and having it readily available at all times. Whether departing to or from the ramp, the pilot needs to understand and capably manage the following: During refueling operations, it ... Read more
- [Risk and Resource Management](https://flight-study.com/risk-and-resource-management/): Ground operations also include the pilot’s assessment of the risk factors that contribute to safety of flight and the pilot’s management of the resources, which may be leveraged to maximize the flight’s successes. The Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2) should be reviewed for a comprehensive discussion of this topic. A review of key points follows. Approximately 85 percent of all aviation accidents have been determined by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to have been caused by “failure of the pilot to…” As such, a reduction of these failures is the fundamental cornerstone to risk and resource management. The risks involved with ... Read more
- [Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/preflight-assessment-of-the-aircraft/): The visual preflight assessment mitigates airplane flight hazards. The preflight assessment ensures that any aircraft flown meets regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical condition prior to flight. Per 14 CFR part 3, section 3.5(a), the term “airworthy” means that the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in condition for safe operation. The owner/operator is primarily responsible for maintenance, but in accordance with 14 CFR part 91, section 91.7(a) and (b) no person may operate a civil aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition and the pilot in command of a civil aircraft is responsible for ... Read more
- [Role of the Pilot Examiner and the Flight Instructor](https://flight-study.com/role-of-the-pilot-examiner-and-the-flight-instructor/): Role of the Pilot Examiner Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by the FAA upon satisfactory completion of required knowledge and practical tests. The administration of practical tests is an FAA responsibility that may occur at the FSDO level. However, in order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and certification services, the FAA delegates certain responsibilities, as the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA employees. A Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) is a private citizen who is designated as a representative of the FAA Administrator to perform specific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalf of ... Read more
- [Role of the FAA](https://flight-study.com/role-of-the-faa/): The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety by prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. Standards are established for the certification of airmen and aircraft, as well as outlining operating rules. This is accomplished through the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), formerly referred to as Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR). Title 14 of the CFR (14 CFR) is titled Aeronautics and Space with Chapter 1 dedicated to the FAA. Subchapters are broken down by category with numbered parts detailing specific information. [Figure 1] For ease of reference and since the parts are numerical, the abbreviated ... Read more
- [Introduction to Flight Training](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-flight-training/): The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training, as outlined in this site, is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills. [Figure 1] Airmanship is a broad term that includes a sound knowledge of and experience with the principles of flight; the knowledge, experience, and ability to operate an aircraft with competence and precision both on the ground and in the air; and the application of sound judgment that results in optimal operational safety and efficiency. [Figure 2] Figure 1. Primary and intermediate flight training teaches basic airmanship skills and creates a good foundation for learners Figure 2. Good ... Read more
- [Dedicated Electronic Flight Computer](https://flight-study.com/dedicated-electronic-flight-computer/): Dedicated electronic flight computers, like the one in Figure 1, are programmed to solve many flight problems such as wind correction, heading and ground speed, endurance, and true airspeed (TAS), as well as weight and balance problems. Figure 1. Dedicated electronic flight computers are programmed to solve weight and balance problems, as well as flight problems Figure 2. Weight and balance data of a typical nosewheel airplane The problem just solved with an electronic calculator and an E6-B can also be solved with a dedicated flight computer using the information shown in Figure 2. Each flight computer handles the problems in ... Read more
- [E6-B Flight Computer](https://flight-study.com/e6-b-flight-computer/): The E6-B uses a special kind of slide rule. Instead of its scales going from 1 to 10, as on a normal slide rule, both scales go from 10 to 100. The E6-B cannot be used for addition or subtraction, but it is useful for making calculations involving multiplication and division. Its accuracy is limited, but it is sufficiently accurate for most weight and balance problems. The same problem that was just solved with the electronic calculator can be solved on an E6-B by following these steps: First, multiply 340 by 78 (disregard the minus sign) [Figure 1]: Figure 1. E6-B ... Read more
- [Electronic Calculator](https://flight-study.com/electronic-calculator/): Determining the CG of an airplane in inches for the main-wheel weighing points can be done with any simple electronic calculator that has addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (×), and division (÷) functions. [Figure 1] Scientific calculators with such additional functions as memory (M), parentheses (( )), plus or minus (+/–), exponential (yx), reciprocal (1/x), and percentage (%) functions allow more complex problems to be solved or simple problems to be solved using fewer steps. Figure 1. A typical electronic calculator is useful for solving most types of weight and balance problems According to Figure 2, the weight of the nosewheel ... Read more
- [Determining CG Changes Caused by Modifying the Cargo (Part 3)](https://flight-study.com/determining-cg-changes-caused-by-modifying-the-cargo-part-3/): Determining Changes in Weight and CG When the Aircraft Is Operated in Its Cargo Configuration To determine changes in weight and CG when the aircraft is operated in its cargo configuration, the Beech 1900 is used as an example. Figure 1 illustrates the airplane configuration. Notice that the arm of each cargo section is the centroid of that section. Figure 1. Loading data for cargo configuration The flight manifest of the Beech 1900 in the cargo configuration is illustrated in Figure 2. The BOW includes the pilots and their baggage and there is no separate item for them. Figure 2. Flight ... Read more
- [Determining CG Changes Caused by Modifying the Cargo (Part 2)](https://flight-study.com/determining-cg-changes-caused-by-modifying-the-cargo-part-2/): Determining the Maximum Amount of Payload That Can Be Carried The primary function of a transport or cargo aircraft is to carry payload, which is the portion of the useful load, passengers, or cargo that produces revenue. To determine the maximum amount of payload that can be carried, both the maximum limits for the aircraft and the trip limits imposed by the particular trip must be considered. In each of the following steps, the trip limit must be less than the maximum limit. If it is not, the maximum limit must be used. These are the specifications for the aircraft in ... Read more
- [Determining CG Changes Caused by Modifying the Cargo (Part 1)](https://flight-study.com/determining-cg-changes-caused-by-modifying-the-cargo-part-1/): Since large aircraft can carry substantial cargo, adding, subtracting, or moving any of the cargo from one hold to another can cause large shifts in the CG. Effects of Loading or Offloading Cargo Both the weight and CG of an aircraft are changed when cargo is loaded or offloaded.In the following example, the new weight and CG are calculated after 2,500 pounds of cargo is offloaded from the forward cargo hold Aircraft specifications areLoaded weight: 90,000 lbLoaded CG: 22.5 percent MACWeight change: 2,500 lbForward cargo hold centroid: station 352.1MAC: 141.5 inLEMAC: station 549.13 1. Determine the CG location in inches from ... Read more
- [Operational Empty Weight (OEW)](https://flight-study.com/operational-empty-weight-oew/): Operational empty weight (OEW) is the basic empty weight or fleet empty weight plus operational items. The operator has two choices for maintaining OEW. The loading schedule may be utilized to compute the operational weight and balance of an individual aircraft, or the operator may choose to establish fleet empty weights for a fleet or group of aircraft. Reestablishing the OEW The OEW and CG position of each aircraft should be reestablished at the reweighing. In addition, it should be reestablished through calculation whenever the cumulative change to the weight and balance log is more than plus or minus one-half of ... Read more
- [Airplane in Percent MAC](https://flight-study.com/airplane-in-percent-mac/): A loading schedule is used to document compliance with the certificated weight and balance limitations contained in the manufacturer’s AFM and weight and balance manual. The basic operating weight (BOW) and the operating index are entered into a loading schedule like the one in Figure 1, and the variables for a specific flight are entered as appropriate to determine the loaded weight and CG. Figure 1. Loading schedule Use the data in this example:Basic operating weight: 105,500 lbBasic operating index (total moment/1,000): 98,837.0MAC: 180.9 inLEMAC: 860.5 Figure 2 illustrates passenger, cargo, and fuel loading tables. Using these tables, determine the moment ... Read more
- [Documenting Changes to an Aircraft’s Weight and Balance](https://flight-study.com/documenting-changes-to-an-aircrafts-weight-and-balance/): The weight and balance system should include methods by which a complete, current, and continuous record of the weight and CG of each aircraft is maintained, such as a log, ledger, or other equivalent electronic means. Alterations and changes affecting the weight and/or balance of the aircraft should be recorded in this log. Changes in the weight or location of weight in or on the aircraft should be recorded whenever the weight change is at or exceeds the weights listed in Figure. Incremental weight changes that should be recorded in a weight and balance change record RELATED POSTS Establishing the Initial ... Read more
- [Determining the Empty Weight and Empty Weight CG](https://flight-study.com/determining-the-empty-weight-and-empty-weight-cg/): When the aircraft is properly prepared for weighing, roll it onto the scales, and level it. The weights are measured at three weighing points: the two main wheel points and the nosewheel point. The empty weight and empty weight CG (EWCG) are determined by using the following steps with the results recorded in the weight and balance record for use in all future weight and balance computations. Determine the moment index of each of the main-wheel points by multiplying the net weight (scale reading minus tare weight), in pounds, at these points by the distance from the datum, in inches. Divide ... Read more
- [Establishing the Initial Weight of an Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/establishing-the-initial-weight-of-an-aircraft/): Prior to being placed into service, each aircraft is weighed and the empty weight and CG location established. New aircraft are normally weighed at the factory and are eligible to be placed into operation without reweighing if the weight and balance records were adjusted for alterations and modificationsto the aircraft, such as interior reconfigurations. An aircraft transferred from one operator that has an approved weight and balance program to another operator with an approved program does not need to be weighed prior to use by the receiving operator unless more than 36 calendar months have elapsed since the last individual or ... Read more
- [Helicopter Weight and Balance Control](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-weight-and-balance-control/): Weight and balance considerations of a helicopter are similar to those of an airplane, except they are far more critical, and the center of gravity (CG) range is much more limited. [Figures 1 and 2] The engineers who design a helicopter determine the amount of cyclic control authority that is available, and establish both the longitudinal and lateral CG envelopes that allow the pilot to load the helicopter so there is sufficient cyclic control for all flight conditions. Figure 1. Weight and balance data needed to determine proper loading of a helicopter Figure 2. Typical helicopter datum, flight stations, and butt ... Read more
- [Effects of Offloading Passengers an Using Fuel](https://flight-study.com/effects-of-offloading-passengers-an-using-fuel/): Consider the helicopter in Figure 1. The first leg of the flight consumes 26 gallons of fuel, and at the end of this leg, the passenger deplanes. Is the helicopter still within allowable CG limits for takeoff? To find out, make a new chart like the one in Figure 2 to show the new loading conditions of the helicopter at the beginning of the second leg of the flight. Figure 1. Determining the longitudinal CG and the lateral offset moment Figure 2. Determining the longitudinal CG and the lateral offset moment for the second leg of the flight Under these conditions, ... Read more
- [Determining the Loaded CG of a Helicopter](https://flight-study.com/determining-the-loaded-cg-of-a-helicopter/): The empty weight and empty weight center of gravity (EWCG) of a helicopter are determined in the same way as for an airplane. See section, Single-Engine Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations. The weights recorded on the scales supporting the helicopter are added and their distances from the datum are used to compute the moments at each weighing point. The total moment is divided by the total weight to determine the location of the CG in inches from the datum. The datum of some helicopters is located at the center of the rotor mast, but since this causes some arms to be ... Read more
- [Ballast](https://flight-study.com/ballast/): It is possible to load most modern airplanes so the CG shifts outside of the allowable limit. Placards and loading instructions in the weight and balance data inform the pilot of the restrictions that prevent such a shift from occurring. A typical placard in the baggage compartment of an airplane is shown in Figure 1. When the CG of an aircraft falls outside of the limits, it can usually be brought back in by using ballast. Figure 1. Typical baggage compartment placard Temporary Ballast Temporary ballast, in the form of lead bars or heavy canvas bags of sand or lead shot, ... Read more
- [Empty Weight CG Range and Adverse Load CG Checks](https://flight-study.com/empty-weight-cg-range-and-adverse-load-cg-checks/): Empty Weight CG (EWCG) Range The fuel tanks, seats, and baggage compartments of some aircraft are so located that changes in the fuel or occupant load have a very limited effect on the balance of the aircraft. Aircraft of such a configuration show an empty weight CG (EWCG) range in the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS). If the EWCG is located within this range, it is impossible to legally load the aircraft so that its loaded CG falls outside its allowable range. If the TCDS lists an EWCG range, and after the alteration is completed the EWCG falls within this range, ... Read more
- [Weight Changes Caused by a Repair or Alteration](https://flight-study.com/weight-changes-caused-by-a-repair-or-alteration/): A typical alteration might consist of removing two pieces of radio equipment from the instrument panel and a power supply that was located in the baggage compartment behind the rear seat. In this example, these two pieces are replaced with a single lightweight, self-contained radio. At the same time, an old emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is removed from its mount near the tail, and a lighter weight unit is installed. A passenger seat is installed in the baggage compartment. Computations Using Weight, Arm, and Moment The first step in the weight and balance computation is to make a chart like the ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Revision Record](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-revision-record/): Aircraft manufacturers use different formats for their weight and balance data, but Figure is typical of a weight and balance revision record. All weight and balance records should be kept with the other aircraft records. Each revision record should be identified by the date, the aircraft make, model, and serial number. The pages should be signed by the person making the revision and his or her certificate type and number must be included. A typical airplane weight and balance revision record The computations for a weight and balance revision are included on a weight and balance revision form. Appropriate fore-and-aft extreme ... Read more
- [Equipment List](https://flight-study.com/equipment-list/): The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) considers the addition or removal of equipment included in the Comprehensive Equipment List to be a minor alteration. The weights and arms are included with the items in the equipment list, and these minor alterations can be done and the aircraft approved for return to service by an FAA-certificate mechanic or repairman. The only documentation required is an entry in the aircraft maintenance records and the appropriate change to the weight and balance record in the POH/AFM. [Figure 1] Figure 1. A typical 14 CFR part 23 weight and balance record Figure 2. Typical comprehensive equipment ... Read more
- [Multiengine Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-aircraft-weight-and-balance-computations/): Weight and balance computations for small multiengine airplanes are similar to those discussed for single-engine airplanes. See Figure 1 for an example of weight and balance data for a typical light twin-engine airplane. Figure 1. Typical weight and balance data for a light twin-engine airplane The airplane in this example was weighed to determine its basic empty weight (BEW) and empty weight center of gravity (EWCG). The weighing conditions and results are: Weight with fuel drained and oil full:Right wheel scales: 1,084 lb, tare 8 lbLeft wheel scales: 1,148 lb, tare 8 lbNose wheel scales: 1,202 lb, tare 14 lb Determine ... Read more
- [Single-Engine Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations (Part 1)](https://flight-study.com/single-engine-aircraft-weight-and-balance-computations-part-1/): Weight and balance data allows the pilot to determine the loaded weight of the aircraft and determine whether or not the loaded center of gravity (CG) is within the allowable range for the weight. See Figure 1 for an example of the data necessary for these calculations. Figure 1. Weight and balance data needed to determine proper loading of a small airplane Determining the Loaded Weight and CG An important part of preflight planning is determining that the aircraft is loaded so its weight and CG location are within the allowable limits. The methods of accomplishing this are the manual computational ... Read more
- [Single-Engine Aircraft Weight and Balance Computations (Part 2)](https://flight-study.com/single-engine-aircraft-weight-and-balance-computations-part-2/): Loading Graph Method The charts and graphs found in the POH/AFM can help simplify and expedite the preflight weight and balance computation process. Some use a loading graph and moment indexes rather than the arms and moments. These charts eliminate the need for calculating moments and make computations quicker and easier. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Typical loading graph Moment Indexes Moments determined by multiplying the weight of each component by its arm result in large numbers that are awkward to calculate and can become a source of mathematical error. To eliminate these large numbers, moment indexes are sometimes used. The moment ... Read more
- [Light Sport Aircraft Weight and Balance Control](https://flight-study.com/light-sport-aircraft-weight-and-balance-control/): This post discusses the weight and balance procedures for light sport aircraft (LSA) that differ from conventional aircraft, specifically weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft (also called trikes), powered parachutes, and amateur-built LSA. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Examples of light sport aircraft (from top left, clockwise): weight-shift control, powered parachute, glider, airplanes, hot air balloon, and amateur-built LSA LSA Definition of Term LSA is a category of simple, very basic, small, light-weight, low-performance aircraft, other than a helicopter or powered-lift, and a classification of aircraft specific to the United States. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) defines LSA as an aircraft with a maximum ... Read more
- [Weighing the Aircraft and Determining the EWCG](https://flight-study.com/weighing-the-aircraft-and-determining-the-ewcg/): Section Weight and Balance Theory, explained the theory of weight and balance and gave examples of the way the center of gravity (CG) could be found for a lever loaded with several weights. In this chapter, the practical aspects of weighing an airplane and locating its CG are discussed. Formulas are introduced that allow the CG location to be measured in inches from various datum locations and in percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). CONTENTS Requirements/Equipment for Weighing Preparation for Weighing Determining the CG EWCG Formulas Location of Datum Center of Gravity (CG) and Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
- [Center of Gravity and Mean Aerodynamic Chord](https://flight-study.com/center-of-gravity-and-mean-aerodynamic-chord/): Center of Gravity (CG) In addition to overloading or drastically reducing the aircraft’s weight, the distribution of weight is also a concern. When aircraft equipment is changed, the person making the equipment change must make an entry on the equipment list indicating items added, removed, or relocated; the date of the change; and the person’s name and certification number in the aircraft’s maintenance records. For the purpose of weight and balance computations, the CG of an airplane is an imaginary point about which the nose-heavy (–) moments and tail-heavy (+) moments are exactly equal in magnitude. If suspended from the CG ... Read more
- [Location of Datum](https://flight-study.com/location-of-datum/): The location of the datum is not important, but all measurements must be made from the same location. Datum Forward of the Main Wheels—Tailwheel Landing Gear Locating the CG of a tailwheel airplane is done in the same way as locating it for a nosewheel airplane except the formula is The distance (D) between the datum of the airplane in Figure 1 and the main-gear weighing points is 7.5 inches, the weight of the tailwheel (R) is 67 pounds, and the distance (L) between the main-wheel and the tailwheel weighing points is 222 inches. The total weight of the airplane (W) ... Read more
- [EWCG Formulas](https://flight-study.com/ewcg-formulas/): A chart such as the one in Figure 1 helps the pilot visualize the weights, arms, and moments when solving an EWCG problem, but it is quicker to determine the EWCG by using formulas and an electronic calculator. The use of a calculator for solving these problems is described in Section 8, Use of Computers in Weight and Balance Computations. Figure 1. Locating the CG of an airplane relative to the datum There are four possible conditions and their formulas that relate the location of CG to the datum. Notice that the formula for each condition first determines the moment of ... Read more
- [Determining the CG](https://flight-study.com/determining-the-cg/): When the aircraft is in its level flight attitude, drop a plumb line from the datum and make a mark on the hangar floor below the tip of the bob. Draw a chalk line through this point parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Then, draw lateral lines between the actual weighing points for the main wheels, and make a mark along the longitudinal line at the weighing point for the nosewheel or the tailwheel. These lines and marks on the floor allow accurate measurements between the datum and the weighting points to determine their arms. Determine the CG by ... Read more
- [Preparation for Weighing](https://flight-study.com/preparation-for-weighing/): In general, weight procedures may vary with the aircraft and types of weight equipment employed. The weighing procedure contained in the manufacturer’s maintenance manual should be followed for each particular aircraft. The major considerations in preparing an aircraft for weighing are described in the following paragraphs. Scale Preparation Mechanical and electronic scales shall be inspected prior to use and set to zero. This is done by adding and removing a weight, then rechecking for zero. This process should be repeated until a steady zero setting is obtained. The scales should be located in the same environment in which they are to ... Read more
- [Requirements and Equipment for Weighing](https://flight-study.com/requirements-and-equipment-for-weighing/): Requirements Regulations do not require periodic weighing of privately owned and operated aircraft. Such aircraft are usually weighed when originally certificated or after major alterations that can affect the weight and balance. The primary purpose of aircraft weight and balance control is safety. Manufacturers conduct extensive flight tests to establish loading limits for their aircraft because limit information is critical for safe flight.A secondary purpose is to aid efficiency during flight. Overloading of the aircraft is not the only concern; the distribution of the weight is important also. The aircraft has CG limits, and any loading that places the CG outside ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Theory (Part 3)](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-theory-part-3/): Manufacturer-Furnished Information When an aircraft is initially certificated, its empty weight and EWCG are determined and recorded in the weight and balance record, such as the one in Figure 1. Notice in this figure that the moment is expressed as “Moment (lb-in/1,000).” This is a moment index, which means that the moment, a very large number, has been divided by 1,000 to make it more manageable. Section 4, Light Sport Aircraft—Weight and Balance Control, discusses moment indices in more detail. Figure 1. Weight and balance report The aircraft is furnished with an equipment list, specifies all the required equipment and all ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Theory](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-theory/): Weight and balance in aircraft is based on the law of the lever. This section discusses the application of the law of the lever and its applications relative to locating the balance point of a beam or lever on which various weights are located or shifted. The chapter also discusses the documentation pertaining to weight and balance that is furnished by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and aircraft manufacturers. CONTENTS Weight and Balance Theory (Part 1) Weight and Balance Theory (Part 2) Weight and Balance Theory (Part 3)
- [Weight and Balance Control](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-control/): There are many factors in the safe and efficient operation of aircraft, including proper weight and balance control. The weight and balance system commonly employed among aircraft consists of three equally important elements: the weighing of the aircraft, the maintaining of the weight and balance records, and the proper loading of the aircraft. An inaccuracy in any one of these elements defeats the purpose of the system. The final loading calculations are meaningless if either the aircraft has been improperly weighed or the records contain an error. Improper loading decreases the efficiency and performance of an aircraft from the standpoint of ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Control (Part 2)](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-control-part-2/): Stability and Balance Control Balance control refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft. This is of primary importance to aircraft stability, which is a factor in flight safety. The CG is the point at which the total weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated, and the CG must be located within specific limits for safe flight.Both lateral and longitudinal balance are important, but the prime concern is longitudinal balance; that is, the location of the CG along the longitudinal or lengthwise axis. An airplane is designed to have stability that allows it to be trimmed to ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Theory (Part 2)](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-theory-part-2/): Shifting the Balance Point or CG One common weight and balance problem involves moving or shifting weight from one point to another in order to move the balance point or CG to a desired location. This can be demonstrated by using a lever with three weights to work out the problem. Solution by Chart As the lever is loaded in Figure 1, it balances at a point 72 inches from the CG of weight A. Figure 1. Locating balance point with three weights To shift weight B so the lever balances about its center, 50 inches from the CG of weight ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Theory (Part 1)](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-theory-part-1/): Weight and Balance Theory Two elements are vital in the weight and balance considerations of an aircraft. The total weight of the aircraft must be no greater than the maximum weight allowed by the FAA for the make and model of the aircraft. The center of gravity (CG), or the point at which all of the weight of the aircraft is considered to be concentrated, must be maintained within the allowable range for the operational weight of the aircraft. Arm The arm is usually measured and expressed in inches and refers to the horizontal distance between the CG of an item ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance Control (Part 1)](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-control-part-1/): Responsibility for Weight and Balance Control The responsibility for proper weight and balance control begins with the engineers and designers and extends to the technicians who maintain the aircraft and the pilots who operate them. Modern aircraft are engineered utilizing state-of-the-art technology and materials to achieve maximum reliability and performance for the intended category. As much care and expertise must be exercised in operating and maintaining these efficient aircraft as was taken in their design and manufacturing: The designers of an aircraft set the maximum weight based on the amount of lift the wings or rotors can provide under the operational ... Read more
- [IFR Emergency Operations](https://flight-study.com/ifr-emergency-operations/): Changing weather conditions, air traffic control (ATC), the aircraft, and the pilot are all variables that make instrument flying an unpredictable and challenging operation. The safety of the flight depends upon the pilot’s ability to manage these variables while maintaining positive aircraft control and adequate situational awareness. This section discusses the recognition and suggested remedies for such abnormal and emergency events related to unforecast, adverse weather; aircraft system malfunctions; communication/navigation system malfunctions; and loss of situational awareness. Understanding how to recognize and respond to these situations is an important part of safe instrument flight. The following topics address common abnormal and ... Read more
- [Unforecast Adverse Weather During IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/unforecast-adverse-weather-during-ifr-flight/): Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter A pilot should avoid flying through a thunderstorm of any intensity. However, certain conditions may be present that could lead to an inadvertent thunderstorm encounter. For example, flying in areas where thunderstorms are embedded in large cloud masses may make thunderstorm avoidance difficult, even when the aircraft is equipped with thunderstorm detection equipment. Therefore, pilots must be prepared to deal with an inadvertent thunderstorm penetration. At the very least, a thunderstorm encounter subjects the aircraft to turbulence that could be severe. The pilot and passengers should tighten seat belts and shoulder harnesses, and secure any loose items in ... Read more
- [Aircraft System Malfunctions During IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-system-malfunctions-during-ifr-flight/): Preventing aircraft system malfunctions that might lead to an inflight emergency begins with a thorough preflight inspection. In addition to those items normally checked prior to a visual flight rules (VFR) flight, pilots intending to fly under instrument flight rules (IFR) should pay particular attention to the alternator belt, antennas, static wicks, antiicing/ deicing equipment, pitot tube, and static ports. During taxi, verify the operation and accuracy of all flight instruments. In addition, during the run-up, verify that the operation of the pneumatic system(s) is within acceptable parameters. It is critical that all systems are determined to be operational before departing ... Read more
- [Communication and Navigation Failures During IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/communication-and-navigation-failures-during-ifr-flight/): Avionics equipment has become very reliable, and the likelihood of a complete communications failure is remote. However, each IFR flight should be planned and executed in anticipation of a two-way radio failure. At any given point during a flight, the pilot must know exactly what route to fly, what altitude to fly, and when to continue beyond a clearance limit. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 describes the procedures to be followed in case of a two-way radio communications failure. If operating in VFR conditions at the time of the failure, the pilot should continue ... Read more
- [Instrument and Systems Failures During IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/instrument-and-systems-failures-during-ifr-flight/): Analog Instrument Failure A warning indicator, or an inconsistency between indications on the attitude indicator and the supporting performance instruments, usually identifies system or instrument failure. Aircraft control must be maintained while identifying the failed component(s). Expedite the cross-check and include all flight instruments. The problem may be individual instrument failure or a system failure affecting multiple instruments. One method of identification involves an immediate comparison of the attitude indicator with the rate-of-turn indicator and vertical speed indicator (VSI). Along with providing pitch-and-bank information, this technique compares the static system with the suction or pressure system and the electrical system. Identify ... Read more
- [Situational Awareness During IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/situational-awareness-during-ifr-flight/): Situational awareness is not simply a mental picture of aircraft location; rather, it is an overall assessment of each element of the environment and how it affects a flight. On one end of the situational awareness spectrum is a pilot who is knowledgeable of every aspect of the flight; consequently, this pilot’s decision-making is proactive. With good situational awareness, this pilot is able to make decisions well ahead of time and evaluate several different options. On the other end of the situational awareness spectrum is a pilot who is missing important pieces of the puzzle: “I knew exactly where I was ... Read more
- [GPS Nearest Airport Function](https://flight-study.com/gps-nearest-airport-function/): Procedures for accessing the nearest airport information vary by the type of display installed in an aircraft. Pilots can obtain information relative to the nearest airport by using the PFD, multi-function display (MFD), or the nearest function on the GPS receiver. The following examples are based on a popular system. Pilots should become familiar with the operational characteristics of the equipment to be used. Nearest Airports Using the PFD With the advancements in electronic databases, diverting to alternate airports has become easier. Simply by pressing a soft key on the PFD, pilots can access information for up to 25 of the ... Read more
- [Conducting an IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/conducting-an-ifr-flight/): To illustrate some of the concepts introduced the IFR Flight, follow along on a typical IFR flight from the Birmingham International Airport (BHM), Birmingham, Alabama to Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport (GPT), Gulfport, Mississippi. [Figure 1] For this trip, a Cessna 182 with a call sign of N1230A is flown. The aircraft is equipped with dual navigation and communication radios, a transponder, and a GPS system approved for IFR en route, terminal, and approach operations. Figure 1. Route planning Preflight The success of the flight depends largely upon the thoroughness of the preflight planning. The evening before the flight, pay close attention to ... Read more
- [Weather Flying Under IFR](https://flight-study.com/weather-flying-under-ifr/): Flying Experience The more experience a pilot has in VFR and IFR flight, the more proficient a pilot becomes. VFR experience can be gained by flying in terminal areas with high traffic activity. This type of flying forces the pilot to polish the skill of dividing his or her attention between aircraft control, navigation, communications, and other flight deck duties. IFR experience can be gained through night flying which also promotes both instrument proficiency and confidence. The progression from flying at night under clear, moonlit conditions to flying at night without moonlight, natural horizon, or familiar landmarks teaches a pilot to ... Read more
- [IFR Instrument Approaches](https://flight-study.com/ifr-instrument-approaches/): Compliance With Published Standard Instrument Approach Procedures Compliance with the approach procedures shown on the approach charts provides necessary navigation guidance information for alignment with the final approach courses, as well as obstruction clearance. Under certain conditions, a course reversal maneuver or procedure turn may be necessary. However, this procedure is not authorized when: The symbol “NoPT” appears on the approach course on the plan view of the approach chart. Radar vectoring is provided to the final approach course. A holding pattern is published in lieu of a procedure turn. Executing a timed approach from a holding fix. Otherwise directed by ... Read more
- [IFR Holding Procedures](https://flight-study.com/ifr-holding-procedures/): Depending upon traffic and weather conditions, holding may be required. Holding is a predetermined maneuver that keeps aircraft within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance from ATC. A standard holding pattern uses right turns, and a nonstandard holding pattern uses left turns. The ATC clearance always specifies left turns when a nonstandard pattern is to be flown. Standard Holding Pattern (No Wind) In a standard holding pattern with no winds [Figure 1], the aircraft follows the specified course inbound to the holding fix, turns 180° to the right, flies a parallel straight course outbound for 1 minute, turns 180° to ... Read more
- [IFR Departure Procedures (DPs)](https://flight-study.com/ifr-departure-procedures-dps/): Instrument departure procedures are preplanned IFR procedures that provide obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure and provide the pilot with a way to depart the airport and transition to the en route structure safely. Pilots operating under 14 CFR part 91 are strongly encouraged to file and fly a DP when one is available. [Figure] Departure procedure (DP) There are two types of DPs: Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), printed either textually or graphically, and Standard Instrument Departures (SID), always printed graphically. All DPs, either textual or graphic, may be designed using either conventional or area ... Read more
- [IFR En Route Procedures](https://flight-study.com/ifr-en-route-procedures/): Procedures en route vary according to the proposed route, the traffic environment, and the ATC facilities controlling the flight. Some IFR flights are under radar surveillance and controlled from departure to arrival and others rely entirely on pilot navigation. Where ATC has no jurisdiction, it does not issue an IFR clearance. It has no control over the flight, nor does the pilot have any assurance of separation from other traffic. ATC Reports All pilots are required to report unforecast weather conditions or other information related to safety of flight to ATC. The pilot-in-command of each aircraft operated in controlled airspace under ... Read more
- [Sources of IFR Flight Planning Information](https://flight-study.com/sources-of-ifr-flight-planning-information/): The following resources are available for a pilot planning a flight conducted under IFR. National Aeronautical Navigation Products (AeroNav Products) Group publications: IFR en route charts Area charts United States Terminal Procedures Publications (TPP) The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications: Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) for flight planning in the National Airspace System (NAS) Pilots should also consult the Pilot’s Operating Handbook/ Airplane Flight Manual (POH/AFM) for flight planning information pertinent to the aircraft to be flown. A review of the contents of all the listed publications helps determine which material should be referenced ... Read more
- [IFR Flight Plans](https://flight-study.com/ifr-flight-plans/): As specified in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, no person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person has filed an IFR flight plan. Flight plans may be submitted to the nearest FSS or air traffic control tower (ATCT) either in person, by telephone (1-800-WX-BRIEF), by computer (using the direct user access terminal system (DUATS)), or by radio if no other means are available. Pilots should file IFR flight plans at least 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure to preclude possible delay in receiving a departure clearance from ... Read more
- [IFR Clearances](https://flight-study.com/ifr-clearances/): An ATC clearance allows an aircraft to proceed under specified traffic conditions within controlled airspace for the purpose of providing separation between known aircraft. A major contributor to runway incursions is lack of communication with ATC and not understanding the instructions that they give. The primary way the pilot and ATC communicate is by voice. The safety and efficiency of taxi operations at airports with operating control towers depend on this communication loop. ATC uses standard phraseology and require readbacks and other responses from the pilot in order to verify that clearances and instructions are understood. In order to complete the ... Read more
- [Ground-Based Radar Navigation for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/ground-based-radar-navigation-for-instrument-flight/): Radar works by transmitting a pulse of RF energy in a specific direction. The return of the echo or bounce of that pulse from a target is precisely timed. From this, the distance traveled by the pulse and its echo is determined and displayed on a radar screen in such a manner that the distance and bearing to this target can be instantly determined. The radar transmitter must be capable of delivering extremely high power levels toward the airspace under surveillance, and the associated radar receiver must be able to detect extremely small signal levels of the returning echoes. The radar ... Read more
- [Head-Up Display (HUD) for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/head-up-display-hud-for-instrument-flight/): The HUD is a display system that provides a projection of navigation and air data (airspeed in relation to approach reference speed, altitude, left/right and up/down GS) on a transparent screen between the pilot and the windshield. Other information may be displayed, including a runway target in relation to the nose of the aircraft. This allows the pilot to see the information necessary to make the approach while also being able to see out the windshield, which diminishes the need to shift between looking at the panel to looking outside. Virtually any information desired can be displayed on the HUD if ... Read more
- [Flight Management Systems for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/flight-management-systems-for-instrument-flight/): A flight management system (FMS) is not a navigation system in itself. Rather, it is a system that automates the tasks of managing the onboard navigation systems. FMS may perform other onboard management tasks, but this discussion is limited to its navigation function. FMS is an interface between flight crews and flightdeck systems. FMS can be thought of as a computer with a large database of airport and NAVAID locations and associated data, aircraft performance data, airways, intersections, DPs, and STARs. FMS also has the ability to accept and store numerous user-defined WPs, flight routes consisting of departures, WPs, arrivals, approaches, ... Read more
- [Required Navigation Performance (RNP)](https://flight-study.com/required-navigation-performance-rnp/): RNP is a navigation system that provides a specified level of accuracy defined by a lateral area of confined airspace in which an RNP-certified aircraft operates. The continuing growth of aviation places increasing demands on airspace capacity and emphasizes the need for the best use of the available airspace. These factors, along with the accuracy of modern aviation navigation systems and the requirement for increased operational efficiency in terms of direct routings and track-keeping accuracy, have resulted in the concept of required navigation performance—a statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace. RNP can include both ... Read more
- [Instrument Approach Navigation Systems](https://flight-study.com/instrument-approach-navigation-systems/): Most navigation systems approved for en route and terminal operations under IFR, such as VOR, NDB, and GPS, may also be approved to conduct IAPs. The most common systems in use in the United States are the ILS, simplified directional facility (SDF), localizer-type directional aid (LDA), and microwave landing system (MLS). These systems operate independently of other navigation systems. There are new systems being developed, such as WAAS and LAAS. Other systems have been developed for special use. Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) Figure 1. Instrument landing systems The ILS system provides both course and altitude guidance to a specific runway. The ... Read more
- [Advanced Navigation Technologies for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/advanced-navigation-technologies-for-instrument-flight/): Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a constellation of satellites providing a high-frequency signal that contains time and distance that is picked up by a receiver thereby. [Figure 1] The receiver that picks up multiple signals from different satellites is able to triangulate its position from these satellites. Figure 1. A typical example (GNS 480) of a stand-alone GPS receiver and display Three GNSSs exist today: the GPS, a United States system; the Russian GNSS (GLONASS); and Galileo, a European system. GLONASS is a network of 24 satellites that can be picked up by any ... Read more
- [Traditional Navigation Systems for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/traditional-navigation-systems-for-instrument-flight/): Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) The nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) is a ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions. The ADF, when used with an NDB, determines the bearing from the aircraft to the transmitting station. The indicator may be mounted in a separate instrument in the aircraft panel. [Figure 1] The ADF needle points to the NDB ground station to determine the relative bearing (RB) to the transmitting station. It is the number of degrees measured clockwise between the aircraft’s heading and the direction from which the bearing is taken. The aircraft’s magnetic heading (MH) is the direction ... Read more
- [Basic Radio Principles for Instrument Navigation](https://flight-study.com/basic-radio-principles-for-instrument-navigation/): A radio wave is an electromagnetic (EM) wave with frequency characteristics that make it useful. The wave travels long distances through space (in or out of the atmosphere) without losing too much strength. An antenna is used to convert electric current into a radio wave so it can travel through space to the receiving antenna, which converts it back into an electric current for use by a receiver. How Radio Waves Propagate All matter has a varying degree of conductivity or resistance to radio waves. The Earth itself acts as the greatest resistor to radio waves. Radiated energy that travels near ... Read more
- [The Air Traffic Control System for IFR Pilots](https://flight-study.com/the-air-traffic-control-system-for-ifr-pilots/): The Air Traffic Control (ATC) system is a coordinated network of people, procedures, and technology designed to ensure the safe, orderly, and efficient flow of air traffic within the National Airspace System (NAS). For pilots operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), ATC becomes an essential partner, providing separation from other aircraft, terrain, and weather while guiding flights from departure to arrival. Under IFR, pilots rely on a structured system of communication, surveillance, and navigation services. ATC utilizes radar, satellite-based navigation, ground-based radio systems, and standardized procedures to monitor aircraft positions, issue clearances, and maintain safe spacing between flights, even when operating ... Read more
- [Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-basic-flight-maneuvers-2/): Using Analog Instrumentation Instrument flying techniques differ according to aircraft type, class, performance capability, and instrumentation. Therefore, the procedures and techniques that follow need to be modified to suit individual aircraft. Recommended procedures, performance data, operating limitations, and flight characteristics of a particular aircraft are available in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/AFM) for study before practicing the flight maneuvers. The flight maneuvers discussed in this section assume the use of a single-engine, propeller-driven small airplane with retractable gear and flaps and a panel with instruments representative of those discussed earlier in Flight Instruments. With the exception of the instrument ... Read more
- [Technology in Helicopter Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/technology-in-helicopter-instrument-flight/): Advances in technology have brought about changes in the instrumentation found in all types of aircraft, including helicopters. Electronic displays commonly referred to as “glass cockpits” are becoming more common. Primary flight displays (PFDs) and multi-function displays (MFDs) are changing not only what information is available to a pilot but also how that information is displayed. Illustrations of technological advancements in instrumentation are described as follows. In Figure 1, a typical PFD depicts an aircraft flying straight-and-level at 3,000 feet and 100 knots. Figure 2 illustrates a nose-low pitch attitude in a right turn. MFDs can be configured to provide navigation ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-takeoff/): The procedures and techniques described here should be modified as necessary to conform to those set forth in the operating instructions for the particular helicopter being flown. During training, instrument takeoffs should not be attempted except when receiving instruction from an appropriately certificated, proficient flight instructor pilot. Adjust the miniature aircraft in the attitude indicator, as appropriate, for the aircraft being flown. After the helicopter is aligned with the runway or takeoff pad, to prevent forward movement of a helicopter equipped with a wheel-type landing gear, set the parking brakes or apply the toe brakes. If the parking brake is used, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Unusual Attitudes and Emergencies](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-unusual-attitudes-and-emergencies/): Unusual Attitudes Any maneuver not required for normal helicopter instrument flight is an unusual attitude and may be caused by any one or combination of factors, such as turbulence, disorientation, instrument failure, confusion, preoccupation with flight deck duties, carelessness in cross-checking, errors in instrument interpretation, or lack of proficiency in aircraft control. Due to the instability characteristics of the helicopter, unusual attitudes can be extremely critical. As soon as an unusual attitude is detected, make a recovery to straight-and-level flight as soon as possible with a minimum loss of altitude. To recover from an unusual attitude, a pilot should correct bank-and-pitch ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Turns](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-turns/): Turns made by reference to the flight instruments should be made at a precise rate. Turns described in this post are those not exceeding a standard rate of 3° per second as indicated on the turn-and-slip indicator. True airspeed determines the angle of bank necessary to maintain a standard rate turn. A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of bank required for a standard rate turn is to use 15 percent of the airspeed. A simple way to determine this amount is to divide the airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For example, at 60 knots approximately ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Straight Climbs and Descents](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-straight-climbs-and-descents/): Straight Climbs (Constant Airspeed and Constant Rate) For any power setting and load condition, there is only one airspeed that gives the most efficient rate of climb. To determine this, consult the climb data for the type of helicopter being flown. The technique varies according to the airspeed on entry and whether a constant airspeed or constant rate climb is made. Entry To enter a constant airspeed climb from cruise airspeed when the climb speed is lower than cruise speed, simultaneously increase power to the climb power setting and adjust pitch attitude to the approximate climb attitude. A helicopter may or ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Straight-and-Level Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-straight-and-level-flight/): Straight-and-level unaccelerated flight consists of maintaining the desired altitude, heading, airspeed, and pedal trim. Pitch Control The pitch attitude of a helicopter is the angular relation of its longitudinal axis to the natural horizon. If available, the attitude indicator is used to establish the desired pitch attitude. In level flight, pitch attitude varies with airspeed and center of gravity (CG). At a constant altitude and a stabilized airspeed, the pitch attitude is approximately level. [Figure 1] Figure 1. The flight instruments for pitch control are the airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator Attitude Indicator The attitude indicator gives ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-flight/): To achieve smooth, positive control of the helicopter during instrument flight, three fundamental skills must be developed. They are instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control. Instrument Cross-Check Cross-checking, sometimes referred to as scanning, is the continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information. In attitude instrument flying, an attitude is maintained by reference to the instruments, which produces the desired result in performance. Due to human error, instrument error, and helicopter performance differences in various atmospheric and loading conditions, it is difficult to establish an attitude and have performance remain constant for a long period of time. ... Read more
- [Aircraft Takeoff using Electronic Flight Display](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-takeoff-using-electronic-flight-display/): The reason for learning to fly by reference to instruments alone is to expand a pilot’s abilities to operate an aircraft in visibility less than VFR. Another valuable maneuver to learn is the instrument takeoff. This maneuver requires the pilot to maneuver the aircraft during the takeoff roll by reference to flight instruments alone with no outside visual reference. With practice, this maneuver becomes as routine as a standard rate turn. The reason behind practicing instrument takeoffs is to reduce the disorientation that can occur during the transitional phase of quickly moving the eyes from the outside references inside to the ... Read more
- [Aircraft Turns using Electronic Flight Display](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-turns-using-electronic-flight-display/): Standard Rate Turns The previous sections have addressed flying straight-and-level as well as climbs and descents. However, attitude instrument flying is not accomplished solely by flying in a straight line. At some point, the aircraft needs to be turned to maneuver along victor airways, global positioning system (GPS) courses, and instrument approaches. The key to instrument flying is smooth, controlled changes to pitch and bank. Instrument flying should be a slow but deliberate process that takes the pilot from departure airport to destination airport without any radical flight maneuvers. A turn to specific heading should be made at standard rate. Standard ... Read more
- [Aircraft Straight Climbs and Descents using EFD](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-straight-climbs-and-descents-using-efd/): Each aircraft has a specific pitch attitude and airspeed that corresponds to the most efficient climb rate for a specified weight. The POH/AFM contains the speeds that produce the desired climb. These numbers are based on maximum gross weight. Pilots must be familiar with how the speeds vary with weight so they can compensate during flight. Entry Constant Airspeed Climb From Cruise Airspeed To enter a constant airspeed climb from cruise airspeed, slowly and smoothly apply aft elevator pressure in order to raise the yellow chevron (aircraft symbol) until the tip points to the desired degree of pitch. [Figure 1] Hold ... Read more
- [Straight and Level Flight using EFD](https://flight-study.com/straight-and-level-flight-using-efd/): Pitch Control The pitch attitude of an airplane is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the actual horizon. In level flight, the pitch attitude varies with airspeed and load. For training purposes, the latter factor can normally be disregarded in small airplanes. At a constant airspeed, there is only one specific pitch attitude for level flight. At slow cruise speeds, the level flight attitude is nose-high with indications as in Figure 1; at fast cruise speeds, the level flight attitude is nose-low. [Figure 2] Figure 3 shows the indications for the attitude at normal cruise speeds. Figure ... Read more
- [Basic Flight Patterns with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/basic-flight-patterns-with-analog-instruments/): Flight patterns are basic maneuvers, flown by sole reference to the instruments rather than outside visual clues, for the purpose of practicing basic attitude flying. The patterns simulate maneuvers encountered on instrument flights, such as holding patterns, procedure turns, and approaches. After attaining a reasonable degree of proficiency in basic maneuvers, apply these skills to the various combinations of individual maneuvers. The following practice flight patterns are directly applicable to operational instrument flying. Racetrack Pattern Time 3 minutes straight-and-level flight from A to B. [Figure 1] During this interval, reduce airspeed to the holding speed appropriate for the aircraft. Start a ... Read more
- [Aircraft Takeoff with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-takeoff-with-analog-instruments/): Competency in instrument takeoffs will provide the proficiency and confidence necessary for use of flight instruments during departures under conditions of low visibility, rain, low ceilings, or disorientation at night. A sudden rapid transition from “visual” to “instrument” flight can result in serious disorientation and control problems. Instrument takeoff techniques vary with different types of airplanes, but the method described below is applicable whether the airplane is single- or multiengine; tricycle gear or conventional gear. Align the airplane with the centerline of the runway with the nosewheel or tailwheel straight. Lock the tailwheel, if so equipped, and hold the brakes firmly ... Read more
- [Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/unusual-attitudes-and-recoveries-with-analog-instruments/): An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally required for instrument flight. Unusual attitudes may result from a number of conditions, such as turbulence, disorientation, instrument failure, confusion, preoccupation with flight deck duties, carelessness in cross-checking, errors in instrument interpretation, or lack of proficiency in aircraft control. Since unusual attitudes are not intentional maneuvers during instrument flight, except in training, they are often unexpected, and the reaction of an inexperienced or inadequately trained pilot to an unexpected abnormal flight attitude is usually instinctive rather than intelligent and deliberate. This individual reacts with abrupt muscular effort, which is purposeless and even ... Read more
- [Aircraft Approach to Stall with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-approach-to-stall-with-analog-instruments/): Practicing approach to stall recoveries in various airplane configurations should build confidence in a pilot’s ability to control the airplane in unexpected situations. Approach to stall should be practiced from straight flight and from shallow banks. The objective is to practice recognition and recovery from the approach to a stall. Prior to stall recovery practice, select a safe altitude above the terrain, an area free of conflicting air traffic, appropriate weather, and the availability of radar traffic advisory service. Approaches to stalls are accomplished in the following configurations: Takeoff configuration—should begin from level flight near liftoff speed. Power should be applied ... Read more
- [Aircraft Turns with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-turns-with-analog-instruments/): Standard Rate Turns A standard rate turn is one in which the pilot will do a complete 360° circle in 2 minutes or 3 degrees per second. A standard rate turn, although always 3 degrees per second, requires higher angles of bank as airspeed increases. To enter a standard rate level turn, apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressures in the desired direction of turn. Pilots commonly roll into turns at a much too rapid rate. During initial training in turns, base control pressures on the rate of cross-check and interpretation. Maneuvering an airplane faster than the capability to keep up with ... Read more
- [Straight Climbs and Descents - Flight Maneuvers Using Analog Instrumentation](https://flight-study.com/straight-climbs-and-descents-flight-maneuvers-using-analog-instrumentation/): Climbs For a given power setting and load condition, there is only one attitude that gives the most efficient rate of climb. The airspeed and climb power setting that determines this climb attitude are given in the performance data found in the POH/AFM. Details of the technique for entering a climb vary according to airspeed on entry and the type of climb (constant airspeed or constant rate) desired. (Heading and trim control are maintained as discussed in straight-and-level flight.) Entry To enter a constant-airspeed climb from cruising airspeed, raise the miniature aircraft to the approximate nose-high indication for the predetermined climb ... Read more
- [Attitude Instrument Flying Fundamental Skills](https://flight-study.com/attitude-instrument-flying-fundamental-skills/): During attitude instrument training, two fundamental flight skills must be developed. They are instrument cross-check and instrument interpretation, both resulting in positive aircraft control. Although these skills are learned separately and in deliberate sequence, a measure of proficiency in precision flying is the ability to integrate these skills into unified, smooth, positive control responses to maintain any prescribed flightpath. Instrument Cross-Check The first fundamental skill is cross-checking (also called “scanning” or “instrument coverage”). Cross-checking is the continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information. In attitude instrument flying, the pilot maintains an attitude by reference to instruments, producing ... Read more
- [Aviation Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism](https://flight-study.com/aviation-instructor-responsibilities-and-professionalism/): Since learners look to aviation instructors as role models, it is important that instructors not only know how to teach, but that they project a knowledgeable and professional image. This section addresses the responsibilities of aviation instructors as trainers and as safety advocates. It explains how aviation instructors can enhance their professional image, and offers suggestions and sources of information to assist in professional development. CONTENTS Aviation Instructor Responsibilities Flight Instructor Responsibilities Aviator’s Model Code of Conduct, Safety Practices and Accident Prevention Flight Instructor Qualifications Professionalism Evaluation of Learner Ability Professional Development
- [Navigation](https://flight-study.com/navigation/): This section provides an introduction to cross-country flying under visual flight rules (VFR). It contains practical information for planning and executing cross-country flights for the beginning pilot. Air navigation is the process of piloting an aircraft from one geographic position to another while monitoring one’s position as the flight progresses. It introduces the need for planning, which includes plotting the course on an aeronautical chart, selecting checkpoints, measuring distances, obtaining pertinent weather information, and computing flight time, headings, and fuel requirements. The methods used in this section include pilotage—navigating by reference to visible landmarks, dead reckoning—computations of direction and distance from ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Services](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-services/): In aviation, weather service is a combined effort of the National Weather Service (NWS), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Department of Defense (DOD), other aviation groups, and individuals. Because of the increasing need for worldwide weather services, foreign weather organizations also provide vital input. While weather forecasts are not 100 percent accurate, meteorologists, through careful scientific study and computer modeling, have the ability to predict weather patterns, trends, and characteristics with increasing accuracy. Through a complex system of weather services, government agencies, and independent weather observers, pilots and other aviation professionals receive the benefit of this vast knowledge base in the form ... Read more
- [Aerodynamics of Flight](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamics-of-flight/): Aerodynamics is the science behind how aircraft fly, making it a crucial topic for pilots to understand. Four fundamental forces act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Lift, generated by the wings, counteracts weight (gravity) to keep the aircraft airborne. Thrust, produced by the engine or propeller, propels the aircraft forward, while drag resists this motion. Lift is created by the shape of the wings (airfoil) and follows Bernoulli’s Principle and Newton’s Third Law. Faster airflow over the top of the wing reduces pressure, while the downward deflection of air generates an equal and opposite upward reaction. ... Read more
- [Principles of Flight](https://flight-study.com/principles-of-flight/): There are certain laws of nature or physics that apply to any object that is lifted from the Earth and moved through the air. To analyze and predict airplane performance under various operating conditions, it is important that pilots gain as much knowledge as possible concerning the laws and principles that apply to flight. If, for example, the pilot allows the airplane to fly too fast, damage to the aircraft structure might occur. If the pilot allows the airplane to fly too slow, the airplane can lose lift and no longer remain airborne. It is the pilot’s responsibility to manage the ... Read more
- [Effective Aeronautical Decision-Making for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/effective-aeronautical-decision-making-for-helicopter-pilots/): The accident rate for helicopters has traditionally been higher than the accident rate of fixed-wing aircraft, probably due to the helicopter’s unique capabilities to fly and land in more diverse situations than fixed-wing aircraft and pilot attempts to fly the helicopter beyond the limits of his or her abilities or beyond the capabilities of the helicopter. With no significant improvement in helicopter accident rates for the last 20 years, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has joined with various members of the helicopter community to improve the safety of helicopter operations. According to National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) statistics, approximately 80 percent ... Read more
- [Helicopter Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-night-operations/): Pilots rely more on vision than on any other sense to orient themselves in flight. Good depth perception, visual acuity, and color vision are essential for identifying terrain, obstacles, and other aircraft. During night operations, however, these visual abilities are reduced, making flight more demanding and increasing the risk of disorientation. Visual cues that are clear during daylight may become difficult to recognize or may disappear entirely at night. Physical deficiencies, fatigue, smoking, stress, and other factors can further reduce night vision capability. Because of these limitations, pilots must understand how the eye functions in darkness and learn how to compensate ... Read more
- [Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-emergencies-and-hazards/): Modern helicopters are highly reliable, but emergencies and hazardous flight conditions can still occur. Mechanical failures, pilot error, adverse weather, and improper control inputs can quickly place the helicopter in a dangerous situation. When an emergency develops, the pilot must react immediately and apply the correct recovery procedure. A thorough understanding of the helicopter, its systems, and the aerodynamic hazards associated with rotary-wing flight is essential. By recognizing the warning signs of a developing problem, many emergencies can be avoided before they become critical. Pilots should also practice emergency procedures whenever possible so that their response becomes quick, accurate, and instinctive. ... Read more
- [Introduction to Helicopter Aerodynamics](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-helicopter-aerodynamics/): Gravity acting on the mass (the amount of matter) of an object creates a force called weight. The rotor blade below weighs 100 lbs. It is 20 feet long (span) and is 1 foot wide (chord). Accordingly, its surface area is 20 square feet. [Figure 1] The blade is perfectly balanced on a pinpoint stand, as you can see in Figure 2 from looking at it from the end (the airfoil view). The goal is for the blade to defy gravity and stay exactly where it is when we remove the stand. If we do nothing before removing the stand, the ... Read more
- [Airplane Emergency Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-emergency-procedures/): This section contains information on dealing with non-normal and emergency situations that may occur in flight. The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/ or preventing a non-normal situation from progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough familiarity with, and adherence to, the procedures developed by the airplane manufacturer and contained in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). The following guidelines are generic and are not meant to replace the airplane manufacturer’s recommended procedures. Rather, they are meant to enhance the pilot’s general knowledge in the area of non-normal and ... Read more
- [Transition to Light Sport Airplanes (LSA)](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-light-sport-airplanes-lsa/): The light-sport aircraft (LSA) concept broadens the access of flight to more people. LSA have been defined as a simple-to-operate, easy-to-fly aircraft; however, “simple-to-operate” and “easy-to-fly” do not negate the need for proper and effective training. This post introduces the light-sport category of airplanes and places emphasis on transition to a light-sport airplane. Even though light-sport airplane flight may appear simple to an experienced pilot, a transition to a light-sport airplane should include the same methodical training approach as transitioning into any other airplane. A pilot seeking a transition into light-sport airplane flying should follow a systematic, structured light-sport airplane training ... Read more
- [Transition to Jet-Powered Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-jet-powered-airplanes/): This section contains an overview of jet powered airplane operations. The information contained in this section is meant to be a useful preparation for, and a supplement to, formal and structured jet airplane qualification training. The intent of this section is to provide information on the major differences a pilot will encounter when transitioning to jet powered airplanes. In order to achieve this in a logical manner, the major differences between jet powered airplanes and piston powered airplanes have been approached by addressing two distinct areas: differences in technology, or how the airplane itself differs; and differences in pilot technique, or ... Read more
- [Transition to Multiengine Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-multiengine-airplanes/): This section is devoted to the factors associated with the operation of small multiengine airplanes. For the purpose of this section, a “small” multiengine airplane is a reciprocating or turbopropeller-powered airplane with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less. This discussion assumes a conventional design with two engines—one mounted on each wing. Reciprocating engines are assumed unless otherwise noted. The term “light-twin,” although not formally defined in the regulations, is used herein as a small multiengine airplane with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 6,000 pounds or less. There are several unique characteristics of multiengine airplanes that make ... Read more
- [Transition to Complex Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-complex-airplanes/): A high-performance airplane is defined as an airplane with an engine capable of developing more than 200 horsepower. A complex airplane means an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller, including airplanes equipped with an engine control system consisting of a digital computer and associated accessories for controlling the engine and propeller, such as a full authority digital engine control; or, in the case of a seaplane, flaps and a controllable pitch propeller, including seaplanes equipped with an engine control system consisting of a digital computer and associated accessories for controlling the engine and propeller, ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-operations/): The mechanical operation of an airplane at night is no different than operating the same airplane during the day. The airplane does not know if it is being operated in the dark or bright sunlight. It performs and responds to control inputs by the pilot. The pilot, however, is affected by various aspects of night operations and must take them into consideration during night flight operations. Some are actual physical limitations affecting all pilots while others, such as equipment requirements, procedures, and emergency situations, must also be considered. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part ... Read more
- [Airplane Performance Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-performance-maneuvers/): Basic flight maneuvers taught to pilots include: straight-and-level, turns, climbs, and descents. As training advances, other performance maneuvers serve to further develop piloting skills. Performance maneuvers enhance a pilot’s proficiency in flight control application, maneuver planning, situational awareness, and division of attention. To further that intent, performance maneuver design allows for the application of flight control pressures, attitudes, airspeeds, and orientations that constantly change throughout the maneuver. Deficiencies during execution of performance maneuvers often occur when a pilot lacks an understanding of fundamental skills or never mastered them. Performance maneuver training should not take place until the pilot demonstrates consistent competency ... Read more
- [Airplane Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-approaches-and-landings/): There is an old saying that while takeoff is optional, landing is mandatory. In consideration of that adage, this section focuses on the approach to landing, factors that affect landings, types of landings, and aspects of faulty landings. A careful pilot knows that the safe outcome of a landing should never be in doubt. Pilots who respect their own limitations are able to approach each landing with confidence and achieve the satisfaction that comes from successful aircraft control. After any landing, a pilot performs a self-evaluation. If there is a question, a read of the relevant section in this section may ... Read more
- [Maintaining Aircraft Control: Upset Prevention and Recovery](https://flight-study.com/maintaining-aircraft-control-upset-prevention-and-recovery/): Safe pilots prevent loss of control in flight (LOC-I), which is the leading cause of fatal general aviation accidents in the U.S. and commercial aviation worldwide. LOC-I includes any significant deviation of an aircraft from the intended flightpath and it often results from an airplane upset. Maneuvering represents the most common phase of flight for general aviation LOC-I accidents; however, LOC-I accidents occur in all phases of flight. To prevent LOC-I accidents, it is important for pilots to recognize and maintain a heightened awareness of situations that increase the risk of loss of control. Those situations include: uncoordinated flight, equipment malfunctions, ... Read more
- [Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-basic-flight-maneuvers/): Airplanes operate in an environment that is unlike an automobile. Drivers tend to drive with a fairly narrow field of view and focus primarily on forward motion. Beginning pilots tend to practice the same. Flight instructors face the challenge of teaching beginning pilots about attitude awareness, which requires understanding the motions of flight. An airplane rotates in bank, pitch, and yaw while also moving horizontally, vertically, and laterally. The four fundamentals (straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents) are the principle maneuvers that control the airplane through the six motions of flight. The Four Fundamentals To master any subject, one must first ... Read more
- [Helicopter Autorotation Aerodynamics](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-autorotation-aerodynamics/): Autorotation is the state of flight where the main rotor disk of a helicopter is being turned by the action of air moving up through the rotor rather than engine power driving the rotor. In normal, powered flight, air is drawn into the main rotor disk from above and exhausted downward, but during autorotation, air moves up into the rotor disk from below as the helicopter descends. Autorotation is permitted mechanically by a freewheeling unit, which is a special clutch mechanism that allows the main rotor to continue turning even if the engine is not running. If the engine fails, the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Sideward, Rearward and Turning Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-sideward-rearward-and-turning-flight/): Sideward Flight In sideward flight, the tip-path plane is tilted in the direction that flight is desired. This tilts the total lift-thrust vector sideward. In this case, the vertical or lift component is still straight up and weight straight down, but the horizontal or thrust component now acts sideward with drag acting to the opposite side. [Figure 1] Sideward flight can be a very unstable condition due to the parasitic drag of the fuselage combined with the lack of horizontal stabilizer for that direction of flight. Increased altitudes help with control and the pilot must always scan in the direction of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Forward Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-forward-flight/): In steady forward flight, with no change in airspeed or vertical speed, the four forces of lift, thrust, drag, and weight must be in balance. Once the tip-path plane is tilted forward, the total lift-thrust force is also tilted forward. This resultant lift-thrust force can be resolved into two components—lift acting vertically upward and thrust acting horizontally in the direction of flight. In addition to lift and thrust, there is weight (the downward acting force) and drag (the force opposing the motion of an airfoil through the air). [Figure 1] In straight-and-level, unaccelerated forward flight (straight-and-level flight is flight with a ... Read more
- [Helicopter Vertical Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-vertical-flight/): Hovering is actually an element of vertical flight. Increasing the angle of incidence of the rotor blades (pitch) while keeping their rotation speed constant generates additional lift and the helicopter ascends. Decreasing the pitch causes the helicopter to descend. In a no-wind condition in which lift and thrust are less than weight and drag, the helicopter descends vertically. If lift and thrust are greater than weight and drag, the helicopter ascends vertically. [Figure] RELATED POSTS Aerodynamics of Flight Forces Acting on the Aircraft Airfoil Terminology, Definitions and Types Airflow and Reactions in the Rotor System Hovering Flight Forward Flight Sideward, Rearward ... Read more
- [Helicopter Hovering Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-hovering-flight/): Hovering is the most challenging part of flying a helicopter. This is because a helicopter generates its own gusty air while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage and flight control surfaces. The end result is constant control inputs and corrections by the pilot to keep the helicopter where it is required to be. Despite the complexity of the task, the control inputs in a hover are simple. The cyclic is used to eliminate drift in the horizontal plane, controlling forward, backward, right and left movement or travel. The throttle, if not governor controlled, is used to control revolutions per ... Read more
- [Helicopter Rotor System Airflow and Reactions](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-rotor-system-airflow-and-reactions/): Relative Wind Knowledge of relative wind is essential for an understanding of aerodynamics and its practical flight application for the pilot. Relative wind is airflow relative to an airfoil. Movement of an airfoil through the air creates relative wind. Relative wind moves in a parallel but opposite direction to movement of the airfoil. [Figure 1] There are two parts to wind passing a rotor blade: Horizontal part—caused by the blades turning plus movement of the helicopter through the air [Figure 2] Vertical part—caused by the air being forced down through the rotor blades plus any movement of the air relative to ... Read more
- [Helicopter Airfoil Terminology, Definitions, and Types](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-airfoil-terminology-definitions-and-types/): Helicopters are able to fly due to aerodynamic forces produced when air passes around the airfoil. An airfoil is any surface producing more lift than drag when passing through the air at a suitable angle. Airfoils are most often associated with production of lift. Airfoils are also used for stability (fin), control (elevator), and thrust or propulsion (propeller or rotor). Certain airfoils, such as rotor blades, combine some of these functions. The main and tail rotor blades of the helicopter are airfoils, and air is forced to pass around the blades by mechanically powered rotation. In some conditions, parts of the ... Read more
- [Forces Acting on a Helicopter](https://flight-study.com/forces-acting-on-a-helicopter/): Once a helicopter leaves the ground, it is acted upon by four aerodynamic forces; thrust, drag, lift, and weight. Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them with the use of power and flight controls are essential to flight. [Figure 1] They are defined as follows: Lift—opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil and acts perpendicular to the flightpath through the center of lift. Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the aircraft downward because ... Read more
- [Airplane Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC](https://flight-study.com/airplane-inadvertent-vfr-flight-into-imc/): It is beyond the scope of this site to incorporate a course of training in basic attitude instrument flying. This information is contained in the Instrument Flying section. Certain pilot certificates and/or associated ratings require training in instrument flying and a demonstration of specific instrument flying tasks on the practical test. Pilots and flight instructors should refer to the Instrument Flying section for guidance in the performance of these tasks and to the appropriate airman certification standards (ACS) for information on the evaluation of tasks performed for the particular certificate level and/or rating. The pilot should remember, however, that unless these ... Read more
- [Airplane Door Opening in Flight](https://flight-study.com/airplane-door-opening-in-flight/): In most instances, the occurrence of an inadvertent door opening is not of great concern to the safety of a flight, but rather, the pilot’s reaction at the moment the incident happens. A door opening in flight may be accompanied by a sudden loud noise, sustained noise level, and possible vibration or buffeting. If a pilot allows himself or herself to become distracted to the point where attention is focused on the open door rather than maintaining control of the airplane, loss of control may result even though disruption of airflow by the door is minimal. In the event of an ... Read more
- [Airplane Abnormal Engine Instrument Indications](https://flight-study.com/airplane-abnormal-engine-instrument-indications/): The AFM/POH for the specific airplane contains information that should be followed in the event of any abnormal engine instrument indications. The table shown in Figure offers generic information on some of the more commonly experienced in-flight abnormal engine instrument indications, their possible causes, and corrective actions. Malfunction Probable Cause Corrective Action Loss of rpm during cruise flight (non-altitude engines) Carburetor or induction icing or air filter clogging Apply carburetor heat. If dirty filter is suspected and non-filtered air is available, switch selector to unfiltered position. Loss of manifold pressure during cruise flight Same as above Same as above Turbocharger failure ... Read more
- [Airplane Systems Malfunctions and Emergency Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-systems-malfunctions-and-emergency-procedures/): Electrical System The loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot of numerous critical systems, and therefore should not be taken lightly even in day/visual flight rules (VFR) conditions. Most in-flight failures of the electrical system are located in the generator or alternator. Once the generator or alternator system goes off line, the electrical source in a typical light airplane is a battery. If a warning light or ammeter indicates the probability of an alternator or generator failure in an airplane with only one generating system, however, the pilot may have very little time available from the battery. The rating of ... Read more
- [Airplane Flight Control Malfunction or Failure](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flight-control-malfunction-or-failure/): Total Flap Failure The inability to extend the wing flaps necessitates a no-flap approach and landing. In light airplanes, a no-flap approach and landing is not particularly difficult or dangerous. However, there are certain factors that should be considered in the execution of this maneuver. A no-flap landing requires substantially more runway than normal. The increase in required landing distance could be as much as 50 percent. When flying in the traffic pattern with the wing flaps retracted, the airplane should be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude to maintain altitude, as compared to flight with flaps extended. Losing altitude can ... Read more
- [Airplane In-Flight Fire Emergency Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-in-flight-fire-emergency-procedures/): A fire in-flight demands immediate and decisive action. The pilot should be familiar with the procedures outlined to meet this emergency contained in the AFM/POH for the particular airplane. For the purposes of this post, in-flight fires are classified as in-flight engine fires, electrical fires, and cabin fires. Engine Fire An in-flight engine compartment fire is usually caused by a failure that allows a flammable substance, such as fuel, oil, or hydraulic fluid, to come in contact with a hot surface. This may be caused by a mechanical failure of the engine itself, an engine-driven accessory, a defective induction or exhaust ... Read more
- [Airplane Engine Failure After Takeoff and Emergency Descents](https://flight-study.com/airplane-engine-failure-after-takeoff-and-emergency-descents/): Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single-Engine) A number of variables and pilot actions factor into a successful emergency landing shortly after takeoff. When an engine failure occurs during the initial climb, the pilot should lower the nose of the airplane and establish the proper glide attitude. What happens next if the engine does not restart? Does the pilot select a field directly ahead (or slightly to the side of the takeoff path) or should the pilot turn back toward the point of departure? There’s not much time to decide and a lot to consider. Continuing straight ahead or making a slight turn ... Read more
- [Airplane Terrain Types for Emergency Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-terrain-types-for-emergency-landings/): Since an emergency landing on suitable terrain resembles a situation in which the pilot should be familiar through training, only the more unusual situations are discussed in the Emergency Landings post. Confined Areas The natural preference to set the airplane down on the ground should not lead to the selection of an open spot between trees or obstacles where the ground cannot be reached without making a steep descent. Once the intended touchdown point is reached, and the remaining open and unobstructed space is very limited, it may be better to force the airplane down on the ground than to delay ... Read more
- [Airplane Basic Safety Concepts for Emergencies](https://flight-study.com/airplane-basic-safety-concepts-for-emergencies/): A pilot who is faced with an emergency landing in terrain that makes extensive airplane damage inevitable should keep in mind that the avoidance of crash injuries is largely a matter of: (1) keeping the vital structure (cabin area) relatively intact by using dispensable structure (i.e., wings, landing gear, fuselage bottom) to absorb the violence of the stopping process before it affects the occupants and (2) avoiding forceful bodily contact with interior structure. Avoiding forcible contact with interior structure is a matter of seat and body security. Unless the occupant decelerates at the same rate as the surrounding structure, no benefit ... Read more
- [Airplane Emergency Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-emergency-landings/): This post contains information on emergency landing techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. The guidelines that are presented apply to the more adverse terrain conditions for which no practical training is possible. The objective is to instill in the pilot the knowledge that almost any terrain can be considered “suitable” for a survivable crash landing if the pilot knows how to use the airplane structure for self-protection and the protection of passengers. Types of Emergency Landings The different types of emergency landings are defined as follows: Forced landing—an immediate landing, on or off an airport, necessitated by the inability to continue further ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Systems and Maintenance](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-systems-and-maintenance/): All FAA-certificated jet airplanes are certificated under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 25, which contains the airworthiness standards for transport category airplanes. The FAA-certificated jet airplane is a highly sophisticated machine with proven levels of performance and guaranteed safety margins. The jet airplane’s performance and safety margins can only be realized, however, if the airplane is operated in strict compliance with the procedures and limitations contained in the FAA-approved AFM for the particular airplane. Furthermore, in accordance with 14 CFR part 91, section 91.213(a), a turbine-powered airplane does not qualify to takeoff with inoperable instruments ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Descent, Approach, and Landing](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-descent-approach-and-landing/): Jet Airplane Descent and Approach The smoothest and most fuel-efficient descent would be to reduce power to flight idle and slow to L/DMAX. In this scenario, the pilot would descend, level off to decelerate, configure for landing, intercept the final approach, and continue a gradual deceleration until setting power for a stabilized descent on final. Traffic and time considerations almost always require deviation from this example, and the typical descent profile has three descent segments with two speed reductions in between. Descent Planning For a typical idle power descent, the top of descent (TOD), point A in figure 1, is determined ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-takeoff-and-climb/): The following information is generic in nature and, since most civilian jet airplanes require a minimum flight crew of two pilots, assumes a two-pilot crew. If any of the following information conflicts with FAA-approved AFM procedures for a particular airplane, the AFM procedures take precedence. Also, if any of the following procedures differ from the FAA-approved procedures developed for use by a specific air operator and/or for use in an FAA-approved training center or pilot school curriculum, the FAA-approved procedures for that operator and/or training center/pilot school take precedence. V-Speeds The following are speeds that affect the jet airplane’s takeoff performance. ... Read more
- [Pilot Sensations During Jet Flight](https://flight-study.com/pilot-sensations-during-jet-flight/): Pilots transitioning into jets may notice these general sensations: response differences increased control sensitivity increased tempo of flight In some flight conditions, airspeed changes may occur more slowly than in a propeller airplane. At high altitudes, the reduction in available thrust reduces the ability to accelerate. The long spool-up time required from low throttle settings also may affect acceleration. Finally, the clean aerodynamic design of a jet can result in more gradual deceleration when thrust is reduced. The lack of propeller effects results in less drag at low power settings. Other changes the transitioning pilot should notice include the lack of ... Read more
- [Jet Airplanes Thrust Reversers](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplanes-thrust-reversers/): Jet airplanes have high kinetic energy during the landing roll because of weight and speed. This energy is difficult to dissipate because a jet airplane has low drag with the nose-wheel on the ground, and the engines continue to produce forward thrust with the power levers at idle. While wheel brakes serve as the primary means to stop the airplane, reverse thrust, when available, assists in deceleration. Certain thrust reverser designs effectively reverse the flow of the exhaust gases. The flow does not completely reverse. Typically, the final path of the exhaust gases is about 45° from straight ahead. This, together ... Read more
- [Jet Airplanes Drag Devices](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplanes-drag-devices/): Jet airplanes have higher glide ratios than piston-powered airplanes. Due to their low drag design, jets take more time and distance to descend or reduce speed. Therefore, jet airplanes are often equipped with drag devices, such as spoilers and speed brakes. The primary purpose of spoilers is to spoil lift. The most common type of spoiler consists of one or more rectangular plates that lie flush with the upper surface of each wing. They are installed approximately parallel to the lateral axis of the airplane and are hinged along the leading edges. When deployed, spoilers deflect up against the relative wind, ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Stall Characteristics](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-stall-characteristics/): The stalling characteristics of the swept wing jet airplane can vary considerably from those of the normal straight wing airplane. The greatest difference noticeable to the pilot is the lift developed vs. angle of attack. An increase in angle of attack of the straight wing produces a substantial and constantly increasing lift vector up to its maximum coefficient of lift, and soon thereafter flow separation (stall) occurs with a rapid deterioration of lift. By contrast, the swept wing produces a much more gradual buildup of lift with a less well-defined maximum coefficient. This less-defined peak also means that a swept wing ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Low Speed Flight](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-low-speed-flight/): The jet airplane wing, designed primarily for high-speed flight, has relatively poor low-speed characteristics. As opposed to the normal piston-powered airplane, the jet wing has less area relative to the airplane’s weight, a lower aspect ratio (long chord/short span), and thin airfoil shape—all of which amount to the need for speed to generate enough lift. The swept wing is additionally penalized at low speeds because its effective lift is proportional to airflow speed that is perpendicular to the leading edge. In a typical piston-engine airplane, VMD (minimum drag) in the clean configuration is normally at a speed of about 1.3 VS. ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Mach Buffet](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-mach-buffet/): Mach buffet arises when airflow separates on the upper surface of a wing behind a shock wave. All other things being equal, shock wave strength increases as the local airflow speed ahead of the shock wave increases. Mach buffet is a function of the speed of the airflow over the wing—not necessarily the forward speed of the airplane, and the shock wave strength, rather than a stall, creates the airflow separation. Mach buffet may result from two different conditions in cruise. At high-speed cruise, a shock wave that becomes too strong as the airflow speeds up over the upper surface causes ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Speed Margins](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-speed-margins/): Maximum speeds in jet airplanes are expressed differently and always define the maximum operating speed of the airplane, which is comparable to the VNE of the piston airplane. These maximum speeds in a jet airplane are referred to as: Mach number is the ratio of true airspeed to the speed of sound. The speed of sound varies with temperature. At low/warm altitudes, the speed of sound is so high that an aircraft is limited by indicated airspeed. At high/cold altitudes, the speed of sound is lower so the aircraft is limited by Mach. To observe both limits VMO and MMO, the ... Read more
- [Jet Airplane Propeller Effects, Slipstream, and Drag](https://flight-study.com/jet-airplane-propeller-effects-slipstream-and-drag/): The absence of a propeller affects the operation of jet-powered airplanes. Specific effects include the absence of lift from the propeller slipstream and the absence of propeller drag. Absence of Propeller Slipstream A propeller produces thrust by accelerating a large mass of air rearward. With wing-mounted engines, this air passes over a comparatively large percentage of the wing area. The total lift equals the sum of the lift generated by the wing area not in the wake of the propeller (as a result of airplane speed) and the lift generated by the wing area influenced by the propeller slipstream. By increasing ... Read more
- [Jet Engine Basics and Operation](https://flight-study.com/jet-engine-basics-and-operation/): Jet Engine Basics A jet engine is a gas turbine with basic cycle of operation; that is, induction, compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust. Air passes through the intake and enters the compressor section, which is made up of a series of fan blades or “stages.” The first stage, visible from the front of the engine, is the largest diameter and has the biggest blades. Each subsequent stage contains smaller diameter and thinner blades of increasing pitch. The compression in each stage raises the air temperature and pressure. The high-pressure hot air enters the combustion chamber where fuel is added. During engine ... Read more
- [Transition to Turbopropeller-Powered Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-turbopropeller-powered-airplanes/): The turbopropeller-powered airplane flies and handles just like any other airplane of comparable size and weight, since the aerodynamics are the same. The major differences between flying a turboprop and other non-turbine-powered airplanes are found in the handling of the airplane’s powerplant and its associated systems, which are unique to gas turbine engines. The turbopropellerpowered airplane also has the advantage of being equipped with a constant speed, full feathering and reversing propeller—something normally not found on piston-powered airplanes. Gas Turbine Engine Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine engines are internal combustion engines. They have a similar cycle of operation that ... Read more
- [Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-to-tailwheel-airplanes/): Due to their design and structure, tailwheel airplanes (tailwheels) exhibit operational and handling characteristics different from those of tricycle-gear airplanes (nose-wheels). [Figure 1] A few aircraft, primarily antique and experimental, may have a tailskid instead of a tailwheel. The same principles discussed in this section usually apply to tailskid. In general, tailwheels are less forgiving of pilot error while in contact with the ground than are nose-wheels. This section focuses on the operational differences that occur during ground operations, takeoffs, and landings. Although still termed “conventional-gear airplanes,” tailwheel designs are most likely to be encountered today by pilots who have first ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Slow Flight, Spin Awareness, and Stalls](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-slow-flight-spin-awareness-and-stalls/): Slow Flight There is nothing unusual about maneuvering during slow flight in a multiengine airplane. Slow flight may be conducted in straightand-level flight, turns, climbs, or descents. It can also be conducted in the clean configuration, landing configuration, or at any other combination of landing gear and flaps. Slow flight in a multiengine airplane should be conducted so the maneuver can be completed no lower than 3,000 feet AGL or higher if recommended by the manufacturer. In all cases, practicing slow flight should be conducted at an adequate height above the ground for recovery should the airplane inadvertently stall. Pilots should ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Engine Inoperative Flight Principles](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-engine-inoperative-flight-principles/): There are two main considerations for OEI operations—performance and control. Multiengine pilots learn to operate the airplane for maximum rate of climb performance at the blue radial indicated airspeed by training to fly without sideslip. Pilots also learn to recognize and recover from loss of directional control associated with the red radial indicated airspeed by performing a VMC demonstration. Since the object of a VMC demonstration is not performance, sideslip occurs during the maneuver. Detailed discussion on both the loss of directional control and maximum OEI climb performance follows. Derivation of VMC VMC is a speed established by the manufacturer, published ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Engine Failure: Low-Altitude and In-Flight](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-engine-failure-low-altitude-and-in-flight/): Low Altitude Engine Failure Scenarios In OEI flight at low altitudes and airspeeds such as the initial climb after takeoff, pilots should operate the airplane so as to guard against the three major accident factors: (1) loss of directional control, (2) loss of performance, and (3) loss of flying speed. All have equal potential to be lethal. Loss of flying speed is not a factor, however, when the airplane is operated with due regard for directional control and performance. A takeoff or go-around is the most critical time to suffer an engine failure. The airplane will be slow, close to the ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Go-Around and Rejected Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-go-around-and-rejected-takeoff/): Go-Around When the decision to go around is made, the throttles should be advanced to takeoff power. With adequate airspeed, the airplane should be placed in a climb pitch attitude. These actions, which are accomplished simultaneously, arrest the sink rate and place the airplane in the proper attitude for transition to a climb. The initial target airspeed is VY or VX if obstructions are present. With sufficient airspeed, the flaps should be retracted from full to an intermediate position and the landing gear retracted when there is a positive rate of climb and no chance of runway contact. The remaining flaps ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Short-Field Takeoff and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-short-field-takeoff-and-landing/): Short-Field Takeoff and Climb The short-field takeoff and climb differs from the normal takeoff and climb in the airspeeds and initial climb profile. Some AFM/POHs give separate short-field takeoff procedures and performance charts that recommend specific flap settings and airspeeds. Other AFM/POHs do not provide separate short-field procedures. In the absence of such specific procedures, the airplane should be operated only as recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should be conducted contrary to the recommendations in the AFM/POH. On short-field takeoffs in general, just after rotation and lift-off, the airplane should be allowed to accelerate to VX, making the initial climb ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Crosswind Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-crosswind-approach-and-landing/): The multiengine airplane is often easier to land in a crosswind than a single-engine airplane due to its higher approach and landing speed. In any event, the principles are no different between singles and twins. Prior to touchdown, the longitudinal axis must be aligned with the runway centerline to avoid landing gear side loads. The two primary methods, crab and wing-low, are typically used in conjunction with each other. As soon as the airplane rolls out onto final approach, the crab angle to track the extended runway centerline is established. This is coordinated flight with adjustments to heading to compensate for ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Normal Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-normal-approach-and-landing/): Given the higher cruising speed (and frequently altitude) of multiengine airplanes over most single-engine airplanes, the descent needs to be planned in advance. A hurried, last minute descent with power at or near idle is inefficient and can cause excessive engine cooling. It may also lead to passenger discomfort, particularly if the airplane is unpressurized. As a rule of thumb, if terrain and passenger conditions permit, a maximum of a 500 fpm rate of descent should be planned. Pressurized airplanes can plan for higher descent rates, if desired. In a descent, some airplanes require a minimum EGT or may have a ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-normal-and-crosswind-takeoff-and-climb/): After completing the before takeoff checklist and pre-takeoff safety brief, and after receiving an air traffic control (ATC) clearance (if applicable), the pilot should check for approaching aircraft and line up on the runway centerline. If departing from an airport without an operating control tower, the pilot should listen on the appropriate frequency, make a careful check for traffic, and transmit a radio advisory before entering the runway. Sharp turns onto the runway combined with a rolling takeoff are not a good operating practice and may be prohibited by the AFM/POH due to the possibility of “unporting” a fuel tank pickup. ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Weight and Balance](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-weight-and-balance/): The weight and balance concept is no different than that of a single-engine airplane. The actual execution, however, is almost invariably more complex due to a number of new loading areas, including nose and aft baggage compartments, nacelle lockers, main fuel tanks, auxiliary fuel tanks, nacelle fuel tanks, and numerous seating options in a variety of interior configurations. The flexibility in loading offered by the multiengine airplane places a responsibility on the pilot to address weight and balance prior to each flight. The terms empty weight, licensed empty weight, standard empty weight, and basic empty weight as they appear on the ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Performance and Limitations](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-performance-and-limitations/): Discussion of performance and limitations requires the definition of the following terms. Accelerate-go distance is the horizontal distance required to continue the takeoff and climb to 50 feet, assuming an engine failure at VR or VLOF, as specified by the manufacturer. [Figure 1A] Climb gradient is a slope most frequently expressed in terms of altitude gain per 100 feet of horizontal distance, whereupon it is stated as a percentage. A 1.5 percent climb gradient is an altitude gain of one and one-half feet per 100 feet of horizontal travel. Climb gradient may also be expressed as a function of altitude gain ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Systems and Operation](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-systems-and-operation/): This post deals with systems and equipment that are generally installed in multiengine airplanes. Multiengine airplanes share many features with complex single-engine airplanes. However, there are certain features that are found more often in airplanes with two or more engines. Feathering Propellers Although the propellers of a multiengine airplane may appear identical to a constant-speed propeller used in many single-engine airplanes, this is usually not the case. The pilot of a typical multiengine airplane can feather the propeller of an inoperative engine. Since it stops engine rotation with the propeller blade streamlined with the airplane’s relative wind, feathering the propeller of ... Read more
- [Terms and Definitions for Multiengine Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/terms-and-definitions-for-multiengine-airplanes/): Pilots of single-engine airplanes are already familiar with many performance “V” speeds and their definitions. Twin-engine airplanes have several additional V-speeds unique to OEI operation. These speeds are differentiated by the notation “SE” for single engine. A review of some key V-speeds and several new V-speeds unique to twin-engine airplanes are listed below. Unless otherwise noted, when V-speeds are given in the AFM/POH, they apply to sea level, standard day conditions at maximum takeoff weight. Performance speeds vary with aircraft weight, configuration, and atmospheric conditions. The speeds may be stated in statute miles per hour (mph) or knots (kt), and they ... Read more
- [Transition Training to Complex Airplanes](https://flight-study.com/transition-training-to-complex-airplanes/): Transition to a complex airplane or a high-performance airplane should be accomplished through a structured course of training administered by a competent and qualified flight instructor. The training should be accomplished in accordance with a ground and flight training syllabus. [Figure] This sample syllabus for transition training is an example. The arrangement of the subject matter may be changed and the emphasis shifted to fit the qualifications of the transitioning pilot, the airplane involved, and the circumstances of the training situation. The goal is to ensure proficiency standards are achieved. These standards are contained in the Practical Test Standards (PTS) or ... Read more
- [Airplane Retractable Landing Gear Systems and Operation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-retractable-landing-gear-systems-and-operation/): The primary benefits of being able to retract the landing gear are increased climb performance and higher cruise airspeeds due to a decrease in drag after gear retraction. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated either hydraulically or electrically or may employ a combination of the two systems. Warning indicators are provided in the flight deck to show the pilot when the wheels are down and locked and when they are up and locked or if they are in intermediate positions. Systems for emergency operation are also provided. Due to the complexity of a retractable landing gear system, the pilot should ... Read more
- [Airplane Turbocharging Systems, Operation, and Failure](https://flight-study.com/airplane-turbocharging-systems-operation-and-failure/): The turbocharged engine allows the pilot to maintain sufficient cruise power at high altitudes where there is less drag, which means faster true airspeeds and increased range with fuel economy. At the same time, the powerplant has flexibility and can be flown at a low altitude without the increased fuel consumption of a turbine engine. When attached to the standard powerplant, the turbocharger does not take any horsepower from the engine to operate; it is relatively simple mechanically, and some models can pressurize the cabin as well. The turbocharger is an exhaust-driven device that raises the pressure and density of the ... Read more
- [Airplane Controllable-Pitch Propellers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-controllable-pitch-propellers/): Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one particular revolutions per minute (rpm) setting and one airspeed. A fixed-pitch propeller provides suitable performance in a narrow range of airspeeds. However, fixed-pitch efficiency suffers considerably when operating outside of this range. To provide improved propeller efficiency through a wide range of operation, the propeller blade angle needs to be controllable. Constant-Speed Propeller A constant-speed propeller keeps the blade angle adjusted for maximum efficiency during most flight conditions. The pilot controls the engine rpm indirectly by means of a propeller control, which is connected to the propeller governor. For maximum takeoff power, ... Read more
- [Airplane Flap Function, Effectiveness, and Operation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flap-function-effectiveness-and-operation/): Airplanes can be designed to fly through a wide range of airspeeds. High speed flight requires smaller wing areas and moderately cambered airfoils whereas low speed flight is obtained with airfoils with a greater camber and larger wing area. [Figure 1] Many compromises are often made by designers to provide for higher speed cruise flight and low speeds for landing. Flaps are a common design effort to increase an airfoil’s camber and surface area for lower-speed flight. [Figure 2] Since an airfoil cannot have two different cambers at the same time, designers and engineers deliver the desired performance characteristics using two ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-approaches-and-landings/): When approaching the airport to enter the traffic pattern and land, it is important that the runway lights and other airport lighting be identified as early as possible. If the airport layout is unfamiliar, sighting of the runway may be difficult until very close-in due to the maze of lights observed in the area. [Figure 1] A pilot should normally fly toward the rotating beacon until the lights outlining the runway are distinguishable. To fly a traffic pattern of proper size and direction, the runway threshold and runway-edge lights need to be positively identified. Once the airport lights are seen, these ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Orientation and Navigation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-orientation-and-navigation/): Generally, at night, it is difficult to see clouds and restrictions to visibility, particularly on dark nights or under an overcast. When flying under VFR, pilots should exercise caution to avoid flying into clouds. Usually, the first indication of flying into restricted visibility conditions is the gradual disappearance of lights on the ground. If the lights begin to appear surrounded by a halo or glow, further flight in the same direction calls for caution. Such a halo or glow around lights on the ground is indicative of ground fog. If a descent occurs through clouds, smoke, or haze in order to ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Takeoff, Taxi, and Climb Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-takeoff-taxi-and-climb-procedures/): Starting, Taxiing, and Run-up Once seated in the airplane and prior to starting the engine, a careful pilot will organize and arrange all items and materials to be used during the flight. The pilot should also take extra care at night to clear the propeller area. While turning the rotating beacon ON or flashing the airplane position lights helps alert persons nearby to remain clear of the propeller, the pilot should carefully and methodically scan the area around the aircraft. To avoid excessive drain of electrical current from the battery, the pilot may turn off unnecessary electrical equipment until after the ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Flight Training and Preparation](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-flight-training-and-preparation/): Training for Night Flight Learning to fly safely at night takes time and experience. Pilot’s should practice maneuvers at night including straight-and-level flight, climbs and descents, level turns, climbing and descending turns, and steep turns. Practicing recovery from unusual attitudes should only be done with a flight instructor. Pilots may practice these maneuvers with all the flight deck lights turned OFF, as well as ON. This blackout training simulates an electrical or instrument light failure. Pilots should also use the navigation equipment and local NAVAIDs during the training. In spite of fewer references or checkpoints, night cross-country flights do not present ... Read more
- [Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids for Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/airport-and-navigation-lighting-aids-for-night-operations/): The lighting systems used for airports, runways, obstructions, and other visual aids at night are other important aspects of night flying. Lighted airports located away from congested areas are identified readily at night by the lights outlining the runways. Airports located near or within large cities are often difficult to identify as the airport lights tend to blend with the city lights. It is important to not only know the exact location of an airport relative to the city, but also to be able to identify these airports by the characteristics of their lighting patterns. Aeronautical lights are designed and installed ... Read more
- [Airplane Equipment and Lighting for Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/airplane-equipment-and-lighting-for-night-operations/): 14 CFR part 91, section 91.205(c) specifies the basic minimum airplane equipment that is required for VFR flight at night. This equipment includes basic instruments, lights, electrical energy source, and spare fuses if applicable. The standard instruments required by 14 CFR part 91, section 91.205(d) for IFR flight are valuable assets for aircraft control at night. 14 CFR part 91, section 91.205(c)(3) specifies that during VFR flight at night, operating aircraft are required to have an approved anti-collision light system, which can include a flashing or rotating beacon and position lights. However, 14 CFR part 91, section 91.209(b) gives the pilot-in-command ... Read more
- [Pilot Equipment for Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/pilot-equipment-for-night-operations/): As part of preflight preparation, pilots should carefully consider the personal equipment that should be readily available during the flight to include a flashlight, aeronautical charts, pertinent data for the flight, and a flight deck checklist containing procedures for the following tasks: Before starting engines Before takeoff Cruise Before landing After landing Stopping engines Emergencies At least one reliable flashlight is recommended as standard equipment on all night flights. A reliable incandescent or light-emitting diode (LED) dimmable flashlight able to produce white/red light is preferable. The flashlight should be large enough to be easily located in the event it is needed. ... Read more
- [Visual Illusions in Airplane Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/visual-illusions-in-airplane-night-operations/): Visual illusions are especially hazardous because pilots rely on their eyes for correct information. Darkness or low visibility increases pilot susceptibility to error. Two illusions that lead to spatial disorientation, false horizon and autokinesis, concern the visual system only. False Horizon Flying at night under clear skies with ground lights below can result in situations where it is difficult to distinguish the ground lights from the stars. A dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground lights can provide inaccurate visual information, making it difficult to align the aircraft correctly with the actual horizon. An ... Read more
- [Vision and Visual Performance for Airplane Night Operations](https://flight-study.com/vision-and-visual-performance-for-airplane-night-operations/): Due to the physiology of the eye [Figure 1], humans experience diminished vision in low-light conditions. Because vision involves the eyes and brain working together, understanding eye function leads to pilot behaviors that can improve night vision significantly. Anatomy of the Eye Light from an object enters the eye through the cornea and then continues through the pupil. The opening (dilation) and closing (constriction) of the pupil is controlled by the iris, which is the colored part of the eye. The function of the pupil is similar to that of the diaphragm of a photographic camera: to control the amount of ... Read more
- [Airplane Chandelles and Lazy Eights](https://flight-study.com/airplane-chandelles-and-lazy-eights/): Chandelle A chandelle is a maximum performance, 180° climbing turn that begins from approximately straight-and-level flight and concludes with the airplane in a wings-level, nose-high attitude just above stall speed. [Figure 1] The goal is to gain the most altitude possible for a given bank angle and power setting; however, the standard used to judge the maneuver is not the amount of altitude gained, but rather the pilot’s proficiency as it pertains to maximizing climb performance for the power and bank selected, as well as the skill demonstrated. Figure 1. Chandelle A chandelle is best described in two specific phases: the ... Read more
- [Airplane Steep Turns and Steep Spirals](https://flight-study.com/airplane-steep-turns-and-steep-spirals/): Steep Turns Steep turns consist of single to multiple 360° and 720° turns, in either or both directions, using a bank angle between 45° and 60°. The objective of the steep turn is to develop a pilot’s skill in flight control smoothness and coordination, an awareness of the airplane’s orientation to outside references, division of attention between flight control applications, and the constant need to scan for hazards and other traffic in the area. [Figure 1] While the fundamental concepts of all turns are the same, when steep turns are first demonstrated and performed, the pilot will be exposed to: Higher ... Read more
- [Airplane Hydroplaning: Types, Effects, and Prevention](https://flight-study.com/airplane-hydroplaning-types-effects-and-prevention/): Hydroplaning is a condition that can exist when an airplane has landed on a runway surface contaminated with standing water, slush, or wet snow. Hydroplaning can have serious adverse effects on ground controllability and braking efficiency. The three basic types of hydroplaning are dynamic hydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render an airplane partially or totally uncontrollable anytime during the landing roll. Dynamic Hydroplaning Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water on the runway that is at least one-tenth of an inch deep. As the ... Read more
- [Airplane Faulty Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-faulty-approaches-and-landings/): Landing involves many precise, time-sensitive, and sequential control inputs. When corrected early, small errors are often not noticeable. On the other hand, uncorrected errors may place the airplane and occupants in an undesirable state. Since pilot training normally includes exposure to landing deviations and their appropriate remedies, this section covers several common landing imperfections. Low Final Approach When the base leg is too low, insufficient power is used, landing flaps are extended prematurely, or the velocity of the wind is misjudged, the airplane may be well below the proper final approach path. In such a situation, the pilot would have to ... Read more
- [Airplane Simulated Emergency Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-simulated-emergency-approaches-and-landings/): During dual training flights, the instructor should give simulated emergency landings by retarding the throttle and calling “simulated emergency landing.” The objective of these simulated emergency landings is to develop a pilot’s accuracy, judgment, planning, procedures, and confidence when little or no power is available. A simulated emergency landing may be given with the airplane in any configuration. If the simulated power failure occurs while above best glide speed, the pilot allows the airplane to slow (or may even bleed off speed by climbing) until reaching best glide speed. When reaching that speed, the nose can be lowered and the airplane ... Read more
- [Airplane Power-Off Accuracy Approaches](https://flight-study.com/airplane-power-off-accuracy-approaches/): Power-off accuracy approaches and landings involve gliding to a touchdown at a given point (or within a specified distance beyond that point), while using a specific pattern and with the engine idling. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing. The ability to estimate the distance an airplane glides to a landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracy approaches and landings. The distance to be covered largely determines the amount of maneuvering needed to complete an approach from a given altitude. While developing ... Read more
- [Airplane Soft-Field Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-soft-field-approach-and-landing/): Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass, requires unique procedures. When landing on such surfaces, the objective is to touch down as smoothly as possible and at the slowest possible landing speed. A pilot needs to control the airplane in a manner that the wings support the weight of the airplane as long as practical to minimize stresses imposed on the landing gear by a rough surface or to prevent sinking into a soft surface. The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to the normal approach used for operating ... Read more
- [Airplane Short-Field Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-short-field-approach-and-landing/): Short-field approaches and landings require the use of procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a relatively short landing area or where an approach is made over obstacles that limit the available landing area. [Figure 1 and Figure 2] This low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to the performance of flight near minimum controllable airspeeds. To land within a short field or a confined area, the pilot needs to have precise, positive control of the rate of descent and airspeed, and fly an approach that clears any obstacles, results in little or no floating during the round out, ... Read more
- [Airplane Approach and Landing in Turbulent Air](https://flight-study.com/airplane-approach-and-landing-in-turbulent-air/): For landing in turbulent conditions, the pilot should use a power-on approach at an airspeed slightly above the normal approach speed. This provides for more positive control of the airplane when strong horizontal wind gusts, or up and down drafts, are experienced. Like other power-on approaches, a coordinated combination of both pitch and power adjustments is usually required. The proper approach attitude and airspeed require a minimum round out and should result in little or no floating during the landing. To maintain control during an approach in turbulent air with gusty crosswind, the pilot should use partial wing flaps. With less ... Read more
- [Airplane Crosswind Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-crosswind-approach-and-landing/): Most runways or landing areas are such that landings need to be made while the wind is blowing at an angle to the runway rather than parallel to the landing direction. All pilots should be prepared to manage a crosswind situation when it arises. Many of the same basic principles and factors involved in a normal approach and landing apply to a crosswind approach and landing; therefore, only the additional procedures required for correcting for wind drift are discussed here. Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to perform than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to different inputs involved in maintaining accurate ... Read more
- [Airplane Go-Arounds and Rejected Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-go-arounds-and-rejected-landings/): A go-around is a normal maneuver that is used when approach and landing parameters deviate from expectations or when it is hazardous to continue. Situations such as air traffic control (ATC) requirements, unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway, overtaking another airplane, wind shear, wake turbulence, mechanical failure, or an unstable approach are all reasons to discontinue a landing approach. Like any other normal maneuver, the go-around should be practiced and perfected. The flight instructor should emphasize early on, and the pilot should understand, that any approach or landing may result in a go-around. The assumption that an aborted landing is ... Read more
- [Airplane Intentional Slips](https://flight-study.com/airplane-intentional-slips/): A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slips are most often the result of uncoordinated rudder/aileron application. Intentional slips, however, are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed and/ or to adjust airplane ground track during a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles need to be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as a means of rapidly reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps are inoperative or not installed. A slip is a combination ... Read more
- [Airplane Normal Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/airplane-normal-approach-and-landing/): Normal approach and landing procedures are used when the engine power is available, the wind is light or the final approach is made directly into the wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected landing point is normally beyond the runway approach threshold but within the first 1⁄3 of the runway. The factors involved and the procedures described for the normal approach and landing also have applications to the other-than-normal approaches and landings discussed in this site. The principles of normal ... Read more
- [Airport Traffic Patterns](https://flight-study.com/airport-traffic-patterns/): Airport traffic patterns ensure that air traffic moves into and out of an airport safely. The direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude at which it is to be flown, and the procedures for entering and exiting the pattern may depend on local conditions. Information regarding the procedures for a specific airport can be found in the Chart Supplements. General information on airport operations and traffic patterns can also be found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations Just as roads and streets are essential for operating automobiles, airports or airstrips are essential for operating airplanes. ... Read more
- [Airplane Elementary Eights](https://flight-study.com/airplane-elementary-eights/): Elementary eights are a family of maneuvers in which each individual maneuver is one that the airplane tracks a path over the ground similar to the shape of a figure eight. There are various types of eights, progressing from the elementary to advanced types. Each eight is intended to develop a pilot’s flight control coordination skills, strengthen their awareness relative to the selected ground references, and enhance division of attention so that flying becomes more instinctive than mechanical. Eights require a greater degree of focused attention to the selected ground references; however, the real significance of eights is that the pilot ... Read more
- [Airplane S-Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-s-turns/): An S-turn is a ground reference maneuver in which the airplane’s ground track resembles two opposite but equal half-circles on each side of a selected ground-based straight-line reference. [Figure] This ground reference maneuver presents a practical application for the correction of wind during a turn. The objectives of S-turns across a road (or line) are as follows: Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications. Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain ... Read more
- [Airplane Turns Around a Point](https://flight-study.com/airplane-turns-around-a-point/): Turns around a point are a logical extension of both the rectangular course and S-turns across a road. The maneuver is a 360° constant radius turn around a single ground-based reference point. [Figure] The principles are the same in any turning ground reference maneuver—higher groundspeeds require steeper banks and slower ground speeds require shallower banks. The objectives of turns around a point are as follows: Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications. Adjusting the bank angle during turns to ... Read more
- [Airplane Rectangular Course Maneuver](https://flight-study.com/airplane-rectangular-course-maneuver/): A principal ground reference maneuver is the rectangular course. [Figure] The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the airplane maintains an equal distance from all sides of the selected rectangular references. The maneuver is accomplished to replicate the airport traffic pattern that an airplane typically maneuvers while landing. While performing the rectangular course maneuver, the pilot should maintain a constant altitude, airspeed, and distance from the ground references. Rectangular course The maneuver assists the pilot in practicing the following: Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground. Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight ... Read more
- [Airplane Drift and Ground Track Control](https://flight-study.com/airplane-drift-and-ground-track-control/): Wind direction and velocity variations create the need for flightpath corrections during a ground reference maneuver. In a similar way that water currents affect the progress of a boat or ship, wind directly influences the path that the airplane travels in reference to the ground. Whenever the airplane is in flight, the movement of the air directly affects the actual ground track of the airplane. For example, an airplane is traveling at 90 knots (90 nautical miles per hour) and the wind is blowing from right to left at 10 knots. The airplane continues forward at 90 knots but also travels ... Read more
- [Airplane Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects](https://flight-study.com/airplane-maneuvering-by-reference-to-ground-objects/): Ground reference maneuvers train the pilot to accurately place the airplane in relationship to specific references and maintain a desired ground track. While vision is the most utilized sense, other senses are actively involved at different levels. For example, the amount of pressure needed to overcome flight control surface forces provides tactile feedback as to the airplane’s airspeed and aerodynamic load. It is a common error for beginning pilots to fixate on a specific reference, such as a single location on the ground or a spot on the natural horizon. A pilot fixating on any one reference loses the ability to ... Read more
- [Airplane Ground Reference Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/airplane-ground-reference-maneuvers/): During initial training, pilots learn how various flight control pressure inputs affect the airplane. After achieving a sufficient level of competence, the pilot is ready to apply this skill and maintain the airplane, not only at the correct attitude and power configuration, but also along an appropriate course relative to objects on the ground. This skill is the basis for traffic patterns, survey, photographic, sight-seeing, aerial application (crop dusting), and various other flight profiles requiring specific flightpaths referenced to points on the surface. Ground reference maneuvers are the principal flight maneuvers that combine the four fundamentals (straight-and-level, turns, climbs, and descents) ... Read more
- [Airplane Rejected Takeoff, Engine Failure and Noise Abatement](https://flight-study.com/airplane-rejected-takeoff-engine-failure-and-noise-abatement/): Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a takeoff that require a pilot to reject the takeoff while still on the runway. Circumstances such as a malfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration, runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be reasons for a rejected takeoff. Prior to takeoff, the pilot should identify a point along the runway at which the airplane should be airborne. If that point is reached and the airplane is not airborne, immediate action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff. When properly planned and executed, the airplane can be stopped on the remaining runway without using ... Read more
- [Airplane Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb](https://flight-study.com/airplane-soft-rough-field-takeoff-and-climb/): Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use of operational techniques for getting the airplane airborne as quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow and may require climbing over an obstacle. The technique makes judicious use of ground effect to reduce landing gear drag and requires an understanding of the airplane’s slow speed characteristics and responses. These same techniques are also useful on a rough field where the pilot should get the airplane off the ground as soon as possible to avoid damaging the landing gear. Taking off from a soft ... Read more
- [Ground Effect on Airplane Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/ground-effect-on-airplane-takeoff/): Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when the airplane is operating very close to the ground. Ground effect can be detected and normally occurs up to an altitude equal to one wingspan above the surface. [Figure] Ground effect is most significant when the airplane maintains a constant attitude at low airspeed at low altitude (for example, during takeoff when the airplane lifts off and accelerates to climb speed, and during the landing flare before touchdown). When the wing is under the influence of ground effect, there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. As a result ... Read more
- [Airplane Crosswind Takeoff Techniques and Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-crosswind-takeoff-techniques-and-procedures/): While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances when circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise. Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and techniques involved in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those for normal takeoffs. A crosswind affects the airplane during takeoff much as it does during taxiing. With this in mind, the pilot should be aware that the technique used for crosswind correction during takeoffs closely parallels the crosswind correction techniques used for taxiing. Takeoff Roll The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a crosswind ... Read more
- [Airplane Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb](https://flight-study.com/airplane-short-field-takeoff-and-maximum-performance-climb/): When performing takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions, the pilot should operate the airplane at the maximum limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. To depart from such an area safely, the pilot needs to exercise positive and precise control of airplane attitude and airspeed, so that takeoff and climb performance result in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of climb. [Figure 1] The pilot should consult and follow the performance section of the AFM/POH to obtain the power setting, flap setting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed ... Read more
- [Airplane Pre-Takeoff Planning and Safety Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-pre-takeoff-planning-and-safety-procedures/): Before going to the airplane, the pilot should check the POH/AFM performance charts to determine the predicted performance and decide if the airplane is capable of a safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location. [Figure] High density altitudes reduce engine and propeller performance, increase takeoff rolls, and decrease climb performance. A more detailed discussion of density altitude and how it affects airplane performance can be found in the Aeronautical Knowledge section. All run-up and pre-takeoff checklist items should be completed before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area. As a minimum before every takeoff, all engine instruments should be ... Read more
- [Airplane Normal Takeoff and Initial Climb Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airplane-normal-takeoff-and-initial-climb-procedures/): A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind; there are times that a takeoff with a tail wind is necessary. However, the pilot should consult the POH/AFM to ensure the aircraft is approved for a takeoff with a tail wind and that there is sufficient performance and runway length for the takeoff. The pilot should also ensure that the takeoff surfaces are firm and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions along the takeoff path. There are two reasons for making ... Read more
- [Takeoffs and Departure Climbs](https://flight-study.com/takeoffs-and-departure-climbs/): About twenty percent of all yearly general aviation (GA) accidents occur during takeoff and departure climbs, and more than half of those accidents are the result of some sort of failure of the pilot. A significant number of takeoff accidents are the result of loss of control of the airplane. When compared to the entire profile of a normal flight, this phase of a flight is relatively short, but the pilot workload is intense. This section discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in airplanes under normal conditions and under conditions that require maximum performance. Though it may seem relatively simple, the takeoff ... Read more
- [Aircraft Upset Prevention and Recovery](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-upset-prevention-and-recovery/): An unusual attitude is commonly referenced as an unintended or unexpected attitude in instrument flight. These unusual attitudes are introduced to a pilot during student pilot training as part of basic attitude instrument flying and continue to be trained and tested as part of certification for an instrument rating, aircraft type rating, and an airline transport pilot certificate. A pilot is taught the conditions or situations that could cause an unusual attitude, with focus on how to recognize one, and how to recover from one. Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets Given the upset definition, there are a few key distinctions between an ... Read more
- [Upset Prevention and Recovery: Airplane Stalls](https://flight-study.com/upset-prevention-and-recovery-airplane-stalls/): A stall is an aerodynamic condition which occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane’s wings is disrupted, resulting in loss of lift. Specifically, a stall occurs when the AOA—the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind—exceeds the wing’s critical AOA. It is possible to exceed the critical AOA at any airspeed, at any attitude, and at any power setting. [Figure 1] For these reasons, it is important to understand factors and situations that can lead to a stall, and develop proficiency in stall recognition and recovery. Performing intentional stalls will familiarize the pilot with the conditions ... Read more
- [Upset Prevention and Recovery: Slow Flight](https://flight-study.com/upset-prevention-and-recovery-slow-flight/): Flying at reduced airspeeds is normal in the takeoff/departure and approach/landing phases of flight. While pilots typically perform these operations at low airspeeds and close to the ground, pilots learn to maneuver an airplane in slow flight at a safe altitude. During slow flight, any further increase in angle of attack, increase in load factor, or reduction in power, will result in a stall warning (e.g., aircraft buffet, stall horn, etc.), and pilots should react to and correct for any stall indication. Note that stall training builds upon the knowledge and skill acquired from the slow flight maneuver and encompasses the ... Read more
- [Airplane Glides](https://flight-study.com/airplane-glides/): A glide is a basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little or no engine power. Forward motion is maintained by gravity pulling the airplane along an inclined path, and the descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing the forces of gravity and lift. To level off from a partial power descent using a 1,000 feet per minute descent rate, the pilot should use 10 percent (100 feet in this example) as the distance above the desired level-off altitude to begin raising the nose and adding power to stop the descent and maintain airspeed. ... Read more
- [Airplane Descents and Descending Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-descents-and-descending-turns/): When an airplane enters a descent, its attitude changes from level flight to flight with a descent profile. [Figure] In a descent, weight no longer acts solely perpendicular to the flightpath. Since induced drag is decreased as lift is reduced in order to descend, excess thrust will provide higher airspeeds. The weight/gravity force is about the same. This causes an increase in total thrust and a power reduction is required to balance the forces if airspeed is to be maintained. The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that produce the following types ... Read more
- [Airplane Climbs and Climbing Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-climbs-and-climbing-turns/): When an airplane enters a climb, excess lift needs to be developed to overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop more lift results in more induced drag, which either results in decreased airspeed or an increased power setting to maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess thrust available. The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that produce the following types of climb: It should be noted ... Read more
- [Airplane Level Turns](https://flight-study.com/airplane-level-turns/): A turn is initiated by banking the wings in the desired direction of the turn through the pilot’s use of the aileron flight controls. Left aileron flight control pressure causes the left wing to lower in relation to the pilot. Right aileron flight control pressure causes the right wing to lower in relation to the pilot. In other words, to turn left, the pilot lowers the left wing with aileron by left stick. To turn right, the pilot lowers the right wing with right stick. Depending on bank angle and airplane engineering, at many bank angles, the airplane will continue to ... Read more
- [Aircraft Trim Control and Proper Trimming Techniques](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-trim-control-and-proper-trimming-techniques/): Trim control surfaces are required to offset any constant flight control pressure inputs provided by the pilot. For example, elevator trim is a typical trim in light GA airplanes and is used to null the pressure exerted by the pilot in order to maintain a particular pitch attitude. [Figure] This provides an opportunity for the pilot to divert attention to other tasks. Because of their relatively low power, speed, and cost constraints, not all light airplanes have a complete set (elevator, rudder, and aileron) of trim controls that are adjustable from inside the flight deck. Nearly all light airplanes are equipped ... Read more
- [Airplane Straight and Level Flight](https://flight-study.com/airplane-straight-and-level-flight/): Straight-and-level flight is flight in which heading and altitude are maintained. The other fundamentals are derived as variations from straight-and-level flight, and the need to form proper and effective skills in flying straight and level should be understood. The ability to perform straight-and-level flight results from repetition and practice. A high level of skill results when the pilot perceives outside references, takes mental snap shots of the flight instruments, and makes effective, timely, and proportional corrections from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs. Straight-and-level flight is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship of a reference point on the airplane in ... Read more
- [Integrated Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/integrated-flight-instruction/): When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning pilot, it is recommended that the “integrated” or “composite” method of flight instruction be used. This means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes and airplane performance. When beginning pilots use this technique, they achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability. Although this method of airplane control may become second nature with experience, the beginning pilot needs to make a determined effort to master the technique. In all cases, a pilot’s visual skills need to be sufficiently developed for long-term, safe, and effective ... Read more
- [Airplane Attitude Flying](https://flight-study.com/airplane-attitude-flying/): An airplane’s attitude is determined by the angular difference between a specific axis and the natural horizon. A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent. This is an important concept because it requires the pilot to develop a pictorial sense of this natural horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed between the airplane’s longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose to the tail of the airplane, and the natural horizon. Bank attitude is the angle formed by the airplane’s lateral axis, which extends from wingtip to wingtip, and the natural horizon. [Figures 1A and ... Read more
- [Effect and Use of the Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/effect-and-use-of-the-flight-controls/): The airplane flies in an environment that allows it to travel up and down as well as left and right. Note that movement up or down depends on the flight conditions. If the airplane is right-side up relative to the horizon, forward control stick or wheel (elevator control) movement will result in a loss of altitude. If the same airplane is upside-down relative to the horizon that same forward control movement will result in a gain of altitude. [Figure 1] The following discussion considers the pilot’s frame of reference with respect to the flight controls. [Figure 2] With the pilot’s hand: ... Read more
- [After-Landing, Parking, and Post-Flight Procedures](https://flight-study.com/after-landing-parking-and-post-flight-procedures/): After-Landing During the after-landing roll, while maintaining airplane track over runway centerline with ailerons and heading down runway with rudder pedals, the airplane should be gradually slowed to normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure before turning off of the landing runway. Any significant degree of turn at faster speeds could result in subsequent damage to the landing gear, tires, brakes, or the airplane structure. To give full attention to controlling the airplane during the landing roll, the after-landing checklist should be performed only after the airplane is brought to a complete stop beyond the runway holding position markings. There have ... Read more
- [IFR Flight Services and ATC Control Facilities](https://flight-study.com/ifr-flight-services-and-atc-control-facilities/): The controller’s primary responsibility is separation of aircraft operating under IFR. This is accomplished with ATC facilities, to include the FSS, airport traffic control tower (ATCT), terminal radar approach control (TRACON), and air route traffic control center (ARTCC). Flight Service Stations (FSS) A pilot’s first contact with ATC is usually through FSS, either by radio or telephone. FSSs provide pilot briefings, receive and process flight plans, relay ATC clearances, originate Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs), and broadcast aviation weather. Some facilities provide En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), take weather observations, and advise United States Customs and Immigration of international flights. Telephone ... Read more
- [ATC Communication Equipment and Procedures](https://flight-study.com/atc-communication-equipment-and-procedures/): Communication Equipment Navigation/Communication Equipment Civilian pilots communicate with ATC on frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF) range between 118.000 and 136.975 MHz. To derive full benefit from the ATC system, radios capable of 25 kHz spacing are required (e.g., 134.500, 134.575, 134.600). If ATC assigns a frequency that cannot be selected, ask for an alternative frequency. Figure 1 illustrates a typical radio panel installation consisting of a communications transceiver on the left and a navigational receiver on the right. Many radios allow the pilot to have one or more frequencies stored in memory and one frequency active for transmitting and ... Read more
- [Terminal Procedures Publications](https://flight-study.com/terminal-procedures-publications/): While en route charts provide the information necessary to safely transit broad regions of airspace, the United States Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) enables pilots to safely and efficiently operate in the terminal environment, where traffic density and workload are highest. Whether departing or arriving, these standardized procedures help ensure obstacle clearance, traffic separation, and predictable aircraft flow, making the jobs of both pilots and air traffic controllers safer and more efficient. Published by AeroNav Products and available in regional booklets, the TPP contains instrument approach procedures, Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs), Departure Procedures (DPs), and airport diagrams. Together, these publications form ... Read more
- [New Technologies in the National Airspace System](https://flight-study.com/new-technologies-in-the-national-airspace-system/): Technological advancements in avionics have significantly enhanced the efficiency, safety, and capacity of the National Airspace System (NAS). One of the most notable developments is the widespread adoption of multifunction displays (MFDs) and moving map technology in modern aircraft. Even many older aircraft are now being retrofitted with “glass cockpit” systems (Figure 1). Moving maps greatly improve pilot situational awareness (SA) by graphically displaying the aircraft’s position in relation to navigational aids (NAVAIDs), waypoints, controlled airspace, terrain, and hazardous weather. When properly certified, GPS-based navigation systems may be approved for terminal area operations, en route navigation, and instrument approach guidance. Another ... Read more
- [IFR En Route Charts](https://flight-study.com/ifr-en-route-charts/): The objective of IFR en route flight is to navigate within the lateral limits of a designated airway at an altitude consistent with the ATC clearance. Your ability to fly instruments safely and competently in the system is greatly enhanced by understanding the vast array of data available to the pilot on instrument charts. AeroNav Products maintains and produces the charts for the U.S. Government. En route high-altitude charts provide aeronautical information for en route instrument navigation at or above 18,000 feet MSL. Information includes the portrayal of Jet and RNAV routes, identification and frequencies of radio aids, selected airports, distances, ... Read more
- [Introduction to The National Airspace System](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-the-national-airspace-system/): Airspace Classification Airspace in the United States [Figure 1] is designated as follows: 1. Class A. Generally, airspace from 18,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) up to and including flight level (FL) 600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all pilots must operate their aircraft under instrument flight rules (IFR). 2. Class B. Generally, airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in terms of airport operations or passenger enplanements. The configuration of each Class B airspace area ... Read more
- [Workload and Task Management for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/workload-and-task-management-for-helicopter-pilots/): One component of SRM is workload or task management. Research shows that humans have a limited capacity for information. Once information flow exceeds the person’s ability to mentally process the information, any additional information becomes unattended or displaces other tasks and information already being processed. Once this situation occurs, only two alternatives exist: shed the unimportant tasks or perform all tasks at a less than optimal level. Like an overloaded electrical circuit, either the consumption must be reduced or a circuit failure is experienced. Effective workload management ensures essential operations are accomplished by planning and then placing them in a sequence ... Read more
- [Risk Management for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/risk-management-for-helicopter-pilots/): Risk management is a formalized way of dealing with hazards. It is the logical process of weighing the potential cost of risks from hazards against the possible benefits of allowing those risks from hazards to stand unmitigated. It is a decision-making process designed to identify hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action. Once risks are identified, they must be assessed. The risk assessment determines the degree of risk (negligible, low, medium, or high) and whether the degree of risk is worth the outcome of the planned activity. If the degree of risk is “acceptable,” ... Read more
- [Aeronautical Decision-Making for Helicopter Pilot](https://flight-study.com/aeronautical-decision-making-for-helicopter-pilot/): Making good choices sounds easy enough. However, there are a multitude of factors that come into play when these choices, and subsequent decisions, are made in the aeronautical world. Many tools are available for pilots to become more self aware and assess the options available, along with the impact of their decision. Yet, with all the available resources, accident rates are not being reduced. Poor decisions continue to be made, frequently resulting in lives being lost and/or aircraft damaged or destroyed. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services for ... Read more
- [Single-Pilot Resource Management for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/single-pilot-resource-management-for-helicopter-pilots/): Many of the concepts utilized in CRM have been successfully applied to single-pilot operations which led to the development of SRM. Defined as the art and science of managing all the resources (both on board the aircraft and from outside resources) available to a single pilot (prior to and during flight), SRM ensures the successful outcome of the flight. As mentioned earlier, this includes risk management, situational awareness, and CFIT awareness. SRM training helps the pilot maintain situational awareness by managing automation, associated control, and navigation tasks. This enables the pilot to accurately assess hazards, manage resulting risk potential, and make ... Read more
- [Situational Awareness for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/situational-awareness-for-helicopter-pilots/): In addition to learning to make good aeronautical decisions, and learning to manage risk and flight workload, situation awareness (SA) is an important element of ADM. Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements (PAVE) that affect safety before, during, and after the flight. Situation awareness (SA) involves being aware of what is happening around you to understand how information, events, and your own actions will impact your goals and objectives, both now and in the near future. Lacking SA or having inadequate SA has been identified as one ... Read more
- [CFIT Awareness for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/cfit-awareness-for-helicopter-pilots/): An emergency medical services (EMS) helicopter departed for a night flight to transport an 11-day-old infant patient from one hospital to another. No record was found indicating the pilot obtained a weather briefing before departure. The pilot had a choice of taking either a direct route that crossed a remote area of rugged mountainous terrain with maximum ground elevations of about 9,000 feet or a route that was about 10 minutes longer and followed an interstate highway with maximum ground elevations of about 6,000 feet. Radar data, which show about 4 minutes of the helicopter’s flight before coverage was lost due ... Read more
- [Vision and Visual Scanning in Helicopter Flight](https://flight-study.com/vision-and-visual-scanning-in-helicopter-flight/): Diet and general physical health have an impact on how well a person can see in the dark. Deficiencies in vitamins A and C have been shown to reduce night acuity. Other factors, such as carbon monoxide poisoning, smoking, alcohol, and certain drugs can greatly decrease night vision. Lack of oxygen can also decrease night vision as the eye requires more oxygen per unit weight than any other part of the body. Night Scanning Good night visual acuity is needed for collision avoidance. Night scanning, like day scanning, uses a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements in 10° sectors. Unlike ... Read more
- [Helicopter Night Flight Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-night-flight-operations/): The night flying environment and the techniques used when flying at night depend on outside conditions. Flying on a bright, clear, moonlit evening when the visibility is good, and the wind is calm is not much different from flying during the day. However, if flying on an overcast night over a sparsely populated area, with few or no outside lights on the ground, the situation is quite different. Visibility is restricted, so be more alert in steering clear of obstructions and low clouds. Options are also limited in the event of an emergency, as it is more difficult to find a ... Read more
- [Vision During Helicopter Night Flight](https://flight-study.com/vision-during-helicopter-night-flight/): The visual sense is especially important in collision avoidance and depth perception. Due to the structure of the human eye, illusions and blindspots occur. The more pilots understand the eye and how it functions, the easier it is to compensate for these illusions and blindspots. Figure 1 shows the basic anatomy of the human eye and how it is like a camera. A camera is able to focus on near and far objects by changing the distance between the lens and the film. With the eye on the other hand, objects can be seen clearly at various distances because the shape ... Read more
- [Rules of Energy Control](https://flight-study.com/rules-of-energy-control/): The central principle encapsulating the role of the throttle and elevator for managing the airplane’s energy can be summed up as follows: coordinated throttle and elevator inputs control the airplane’s energy state. Modifying a popular adage, the principle can be restated as “pitch plus power controls energy state.” This central principle serves to guide a set of general energy control rules to achieve and maintain any desired vertical flight path and airspeed targets within the airplane’s energy envelope. Visualizing the Airplane’s Ability to “Move” Between Energy States To better understand the basic rules of energy control, a pilot needs to visualize ... Read more
- [Visual Deficiencies in Helicopter Night Flight](https://flight-study.com/visual-deficiencies-in-helicopter-night-flight/): Night Myopia At night, blue wavelengths of light prevail in the visible portion of the spectrum. Therefore, slightly nearsighted (myopic) individuals viewing blue-green light at night may experience blurred vision. Even pilots with perfect vision find that image sharpness decreases as pupil diameter increases. For individuals with mild refractive errors, these factors combine to make vision unacceptably blurred unless they wear corrective glasses. Another factor to consider is “dark focus.” When light levels decrease, the focusing mechanism of the eye may move toward a resting position and make the eye more myopic. These factors become important when pilots rely on terrain ... Read more
- [Helicopter VFR Flight Into IMC](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-vfr-flight-into-imc/): Helicopters, unlike airplanes, generally operate under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and require pilots to maintain aircraft control by visual cues. However, when unforecast weather leads to degraded visibility, the pilot may be at increased risk of Inadvertent flight into Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IIMC). During an IIMC encounter, the pilot may be unprepared for the loss of visual reference, resulting in a reduced ability to continue safe flight. IIMC is a life-threatening emergency for any pilot. To capture these IIMC events, the Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Common Taxonomy Team (CICTT) categorizes this occurrence as Unintended ... Read more
- [Helicopter System Malfunctions](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-system-malfunctions/): By following the manufacturer’s recommendations regarding operating limits and procedures and periodic maintenance and inspections, many system and equipment failures can be eliminated. Certain malfunctions or failures can be traced to some error on the part of the pilot; therefore, appropriate flying techniques and use of threat and error management may help to prevent an emergency Antitorque System Failure Antitorque failure usually falls into one of two categories. One is failure of the power drive portion of the tail rotor disk resulting in a complete loss of antitorque. The other category covers mechanical control failures prohibiting the pilot from changing or ... Read more
- [Helicopter Low Rotor RPM and Rotor Stall](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-low-rotor-rpm-and-rotor-stall/): Rotor rpm is a critically important parameter for all helicopter operations. Just as airplanes will not fly below a certain airspeed, helicopters will not fly below a certain rotor rpm. Safe rotor rpm ranges are marked on the helicopter’s tachometer and specified in the RFM. If the pilot allows the rotor rpm to fall below the safe operating range, the helicopter is in a low rpm situation. If the rotor rpm continues to fall, the rotor will eventually stall. Rotor stall should not be confused with retreating blade stall, which occurs at high forward speeds and over a small portion of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Low-G Conditions and Mast Bumping](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-low-g-conditions-and-mast-bumping/): “G” is an abbreviation for acceleration due to the earth’s gravity. A person standing on the ground or sitting in an aircraft in level flight is experiencing one G. An aircraft in a tight, banked turn with the pilot being pressed into the seat is experiencing more than one G or high-G conditions. A person beginning a downward ride in an elevator or riding down a steep track on a roller coaster is experiencing less than one G or low-G conditions. The best way for a pilot to recognize low G is a weightless feeling similar to the start of a ... Read more
- [Helicopter Dynamic Rollover](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-dynamic-rollover/): A helicopter is susceptible to a lateral rolling tendency, called dynamic rollover, when it is in contact with the surface during takeoffs or landings. For dynamic rollover to occur, some factor must first cause the helicopter to roll or pivot around a skid or landing gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is reached. The angle at which dynamic rollover occurs will vary based on helicopter type. Then, beyond this point, main rotor thrust continues the roll and recovery is impossible. After this angle is achieved, the cyclic does not have sufficient range of control to eliminate the thrust component and ... Read more
- [Helicopter Vortex Ring State](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-vortex-ring-state/): Vortex ring state (formerly referenced as settling-with-power) describes an aerodynamic condition in which a helicopter may be in a vertical descent with 20 percent up to maximum power applied, and little or no climb performance. The previously used term settling-with-power came from the fact that the helicopter keeps settling even though full engine power is applied. In a normal out-of-ground-effect (OGE) hover, the helicopter is able to remain stationary by propelling a large mass of air down through the main rotor. Some of the air is recirculated near the tips of the blades, curling up from the bottom of the rotor ... Read more
- [Helicopter Slope Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-slope-operations/): Prior to conducting any slope operations, be thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of dynamic rollover and mast bumping, which are discussed in Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards section. The approach to a slope is similar to the approach to any other landing area. During slope operations, make allowances for wind, barriers, and forced landing sites in case of engine failure. Since the slope may constitute an obstruction to wind passage, anticipate turbulence and downdrafts. Slope Landing A pilot usually lands a helicopter across the slope rather than with the slope. Landing with the helicopter facing down the slope or downhill is not ... Read more
- [Helicopter Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On Landing](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-shallow-approach-and-running-roll-on-landing/): Use a shallow approach and running landing when a high density altitude, a high gross weight condition, or some combination thereof, is such that a normal or steep approach cannot be made because of insufficient power to hover. [Figure 1] To compensate for this lack of power, a shallow approach and running landing makes use of translational lift until surface contact is made. If flying a wheeled helicopter, a roll-on landing can be used to minimize the effect of downwash. The glide angle for a shallow approach is approximately 3° to 5°. This angle is similar to the angle used on ... Read more
- [Helicopter Maximum Performance Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-maximum-performance-takeoff/): A maximum performance takeoff is used to climb at a steep angle to clear barriers in the flightpath. It can be used when taking off from small areas surrounded by high obstacles. Allow for a vertical takeoff, although not preferred, if obstruction clearance could be in doubt. Before attempting a maximum performance takeoff, know thoroughly the capabilities and limitations of the equipment. Also consider the wind velocity, temperature, density altitude, gross weight, center of gravity (CG) location, and other factors affecting pilot technique and the performance of the helicopter. To accomplish this type of takeoff safely, there must be enough power ... Read more
- [Helicopter Reconnaissance Procedures](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-reconnaissance-procedures/): When planning to land or take off at an unfamiliar site, gather as much information as possible about the area. Reconnaissance techniques are ways of gathering this information. High Reconnaissance The purpose of conducting a high reconnaissance is to determine direction and speed of the wind, a touchdown point, suitability of the landing area, approach and departure axes, and obstacles for both the approach and departure. The pilot should also give particular consideration to forced landing areas in case of an emergency. Altitude, airspeed, and flight pattern for a high reconnaissance are governed by wind and terrain features. It is important ... Read more
- [Advanced Helicopter Flight Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/advanced-helicopter-flight-maneuvers/): Advanced helicopter maneuvers push the limits of a pilot’s skill, demanding precision, situational awareness, and a thorough understanding of aircraft performance. These maneuvers often bring the helicopter close to the boundaries of its safe operating envelope and require careful judgment, planning, and continuous evaluation of conditions throughout the flight. Unlike basic maneuvers, advanced operations are commonly performed in demanding environments where obstacles, terrain, wind, and limited landing areas can significantly affect safety. Before attempting any advanced maneuver, the pilot must consider aircraft weight, density altitude, wind direction, available escape routes, and the overall suitability of the operating area. Many of these ... Read more
- [Helicopter Approaches and Go-Arounds](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-approaches-and-go-arounds/): Approaches An approach is the transition from traffic pattern altitude to either a hover or to the surface. The approach should terminate at the hover altitude with the rate of descent and groundspeed reaching zero at the same time. Approaches are categorized according to the angle of descent as normal, steep, or shallow. In this post, concentration is on the normal approach. Steep Approach and Shallow Approach are discussed in the the Advanced Flight Maneuvers section. Use the type of approach best suited to the existing conditions. These conditions may include obstacles, size and surface of the landing area, density altitude, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Traffic Patterns](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-traffic-patterns/): A traffic pattern promotes safety by establishing a common track to help pilots determine their landing order and provide common reference. A traffic pattern is also useful to control the flow of traffic, particularly at airports without operating control towers. It affords a measure of safety, separation, protection, and administrative control over arriving, departing, and circling aircraft. Due to specialized operating characteristics, airplanes and helicopters do not mix well in the same traffic environment. At multiple-use airports, regulation states that helicopters should always avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic. To do this, be familiar with the patterns typically flown by airplanes. ... Read more
- [Helicopter Ground Reference Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-ground-reference-maneuvers/): Ground reference maneuvers may be used as training exercises to help develop a division of attention between the flightpath and ground references, and while controlling the helicopter and watching for other aircraft in the vicinity. Other examples of ground reference maneuvers are flights for photographic or observation purposes, such as pipe line or power line checks. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn should be accomplished to ensure the area is free of conflicting traffic. Rectangular Course The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the ground track of the helicopter is equidistant from all sides of a selected rectangular ... Read more
- [Crosswind Considerations During Helicopter Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/crosswind-considerations-during-helicopter-takeoff/): If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of the maneuver. [Figure 1] The cyclic is held into the wind a sufficient amount to maintain the desired ground track for the takeoff. The heading is maintained with the use of the antitorque pedals. In other words, the rotor is tilted into the wind so that the sideward movement of the helicopter is just enough to counteract the crosswind effect. To prevent the nose from turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it is necessary to increase the antitorque pedal ... Read more
- [Helicopter Taxiing](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-taxiing/): Taxiing refers to operations on or near the surface of taxiways or other prescribed routes. Helicopters utilize three different types of taxiing. Hover Taxi A hover taxi is used when operating below 25 feet above ground level (AGL). [Figure 1] Since hover taxi is just like forward, sideward, or rearward hovering flight, the technique to perform it is not presented here. Air Taxi An air taxi is preferred when movements require greater distances within an airport or heliport boundary. [Figure 2] In this case, fly to the new location; however, it is expected that the helicopter will remain below 100 feet ... Read more
- [Helicopter Normal Takeoffs From a Hover and Surface](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-normal-takeoffs-from-a-hover-and-surface/): Normal Takeoff From a Hover A normal takeoff from a hover is an orderly transition to forward flight and is executed to increase altitude safely and expeditiously. Before initiating a takeoff, the pilot should ensure that the proper checklist has been completed and the helicopter systems are within normal limits. During the takeoff, fly a profile that avoids the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram. Technique Refer to Figure 1 (position 1). Bring the helicopter to a hover and make a performance check, which includes power, balance, and flight controls. The power check should include an evaluation of the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Hovering and Hovering Flight Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-hovering-and-hovering-flight-maneuvers/): Hovering A stationary hover is a maneuver in which the helicopter is maintained in nearly motionless flight over a reference point at a constant altitude and on a constant heading. Technique To maintain a hover over a point, use sideview and peripheral vision to look for small changes in the helicopter’s attitude and altitude. When these changes are noted, make the necessary control inputs before the helicopter starts to move from the point. To detect small variations in altitude or position, the main area of visual attention needs to be some distance from the aircraft, using various points on the helicopter ... Read more
- [Helicopter Vertical Takeoff to a Hover](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-vertical-takeoff-to-a-hover/): A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the helicopter from the ground vertically to a skid height of two to three feet, while maintaining a constant heading. Once the desired skid height is achieved, the helicopter should remain nearly motionless over a reference point at a constant altitude and on a constant heading. The maneuver requires a high degree of concentration and coordination. Technique The pilot on the controls needs to clear the area left, right, and above to perform a vertical takeoff to a hover. The pilot should remain focused outside the aircraft and obtain clearance to take off ... Read more
- [Helicopter Normal Climb and Descent](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-normal-climb-and-descent/): Normal Climb The entry into a climb from a hover has already been described in the Normal Takeoff from a Hover subsection; therefore, this discussion is limited to a climb entry from cruising flight. Technique To enter a climb in a helicopter while maintaining airspeed, the first actions are increasing the collective and throttle, and adjusting the pedals as necessary to maintain a centered ball in the slip/skid indicator. Moving the collective up requires a slight aft movement of the cyclic to direct all of the increased power into lift and maintain the airspeed. Remember, a helicopter can climb with the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Turns](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-turns/): A turn is a maneuver used to change the heading of the helicopter. The aerodynamics of a turn were previously discussed in Aerodynamics of Flight section. Technique Before beginning any turn, the area in the direction of the turn must be cleared not only at the helicopter’s altitude, but also above and below. To enter a turn from straight-and-level flight, apply sideward pressure on the cyclic in the direction the turn is to be made. This is the only control movement needed to start the turn. Do not use the pedals to assist the turn. Use the pedals only to compensate ... Read more
- [Helicopter Straight-and-Level Flight](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-straight-and-level-flight/): Straight-and-level flight is flight in which constant altitude and heading are maintained. The attitude of the rotor disk relative to the horizon determines the airspeed. The horizontal stabilizer design determines the helicopter’s attitude when stabilized at an airspeed and altitude. Altitude is primarily controlled by use of the collective. Technique To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-path plane must be tilted forward to obtain the necessary horizontal thrust component from the main rotor. By doing this, it causes the nose of the helicopter to lower which in turn will cause the airspeed to increase. In order to counteract this, the pilot ... Read more
- [The Four Fundamentals of Helicopter Flight](https://flight-study.com/the-four-fundamentals-of-helicopter-flight/): There are four fundamentals of flight upon which all maneuvers are based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All controlled flight maneuvers consist of one or more of these four fundamentals of flight. If a student pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the student’s proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and control analysis rather than mechanical movements, the ability to perform any assigned maneuver is only a matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must impart a good knowledge of these basic elements to the student and must combine them and ... Read more
- [Basic Helicopter Flight Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/basic-helicopter-flight-maneuvers/): Although helicopter flight principles are the same for all rotorcraft, no two helicopters perform exactly alike. Differences in rotor system design, wind, temperature, humidity, aircraft weight, and installed equipment all influence how a helicopter responds during flight. For this reason, the flight techniques presented here are intended to apply to the majority of training helicopters. Most of the maneuvers in this section assume a helicopter with a single main rotor that turns counterclockwise when viewed from above, along with a conventional antitorque system. Where procedures differ for helicopters with a clockwise-turning rotor system or different antitorque arrangement, the variation is noted. ... Read more
- [Helicopter Ground Procedures and Flight Preparation](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-ground-procedures-and-flight-preparation/): Once a pilot takes off, it is up to him or her to make sound, safe decisions throughout the flight. It is equally important for the pilot to use the same diligence when conducting a preflight inspection, making maintenance decisions, refueling, and conducting ground operations. This post discusses the responsibility of the pilot regarding ground safety in and around the helicopter and when preparing to fly. Preflight Before any flight, ensure the helicopter is airworthy by inspecting it according to the rotorcraft flight manual (RFM), pilot’s operating handbook (POH), or other information supplied either by the operator or the manufacturer. Remember ... Read more
- [Helicopter Performance](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-performance/): A pilot’s ability to predict the performance of a helicopter is extremely important. It helps to determine how much weight the helicopter can carry before takeoff, if the helicopter can safely hover at a specific altitude and temperature, the distance required to climb above obstacles, and what the maximum climb rate will be. Factors Affecting Performance A helicopter’s performance is dependent on the power output of the engine and the lift produced by the rotors, whether it is the main rotor(s) or tail rotor. Any factor that affects engine and rotor efficiency affects performance. The three major factors that affect performance ... Read more
- [Helicopter Anti-Icing Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-anti-icing-systems/): Anti-icing is the process of protecting against the formation of frozen contaminant, snow, ice, or slush on a surface. Engine Anti-Ice The anti-icing system found on most turbine-powered helicopters uses engine bleed air. Bleed air in turbine engines is compressed air taken from within the engine, after the compressor stage(s) and before the fuel is injected in the burners. The bleed air flows through the inlet guide vanes and to the inlet itself to prevent ice formation on the hollow vanes. A pilot-controlled, electrically operated valve on the compressor controls the air flow. Engine anti-ice systems should be on prior to ... Read more
- [Helicopter Components, Sections, and Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-components-sections-and-systems/): Although helicopters vary greatly in size, shape, and mission, most share the same basic structural sections and operating systems. Every helicopter is built around a fuselage that supports the rotor systems, landing gear, powerplant, and transmission. Together, these major components provide the lift, thrust, and control that make rotary-wing flight possible. The main rotor system generates lift and directional movement, while the tail rotor or other anti-torque system counteracts main rotor torque and maintains heading control. Supporting these are the transmission, engines, and drive systems, which transfer power from the engine to the rotors. The helicopter airframe also includes important structural ... Read more
- [Helicopter Environmental Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-environmental-systems/): Heating and cooling the helicopter cabin can be accomplished in different ways. The simplest form of cooling is by ram air. Air ducts in the front or sides of the helicopter are opened or closed by the pilot to let ram air into the cabin. This system is limited as it requires forward airspeed to provide airflow and also depends on the temperature of the outside air. Air conditioning provides better cooling, but it is more complex and weighs more than a ram air system. One of the simplest methods of cooling a helicopter is to remove the doors allowing air ... Read more
- [Helicopter Stability Augmentations Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-stability-augmentations-systems/): Some helicopters incorporate a stability augmentation system (SAS) to help stabilize the helicopter in flight and in a hover. The original purpose and design allowed decreased pilot work load and lessened fatigue. It allowed pilots to place an aircraft at a set attitude to accomplish other tasks or simply stabilize the aircraft for long cross-country flights. Force Trim Force trim was a passive system that simply held the cyclic in a position that gave a control force to transitioning airplane pilots who had become accustomed to such control forces. The system uses a magnetic clutch and springs to hold the cyclic ... Read more
- [Helicopter Hydraulics System](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-hydraulics-system/): Most helicopters, other than smaller piston-powered helicopters, incorporate the use of hydraulic actuators to overcome high control forces. A typical hydraulic system consists of actuators, also called servos, on each flight control, a pump which is usually driven by the main rotor transmission and a reservoir to store the hydraulic fluid. Some helicopters have accumulators located on the pressure side of the hydraulic system. This allows for a continuous fluid pressure into the system. A switch in the cockpit can turn the system off, although it is left on under normal conditions. When the pilot places the hydraulic switch/circuit breaker into ... Read more
- [Helicopter Electrical Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-electrical-systems/): The electrical systems, in most helicopters, reflect the increased use of sophisticated avionics and other electrical accessories. [Figure] More and more operations in today’s flight environment are dependent on the aircraft’s electrical system; however, all helicopters can be safely flown without any electrical power in the event of an electrical malfunction or emergency. Helicopters have either a 14- or 28-volt, direct-current electrical system. On small, piston powered helicopters, electrical energy is supplied by an engine-driven alternator by means of a belt and pulley system similar to that of an automobile. These alternators have advantages over older-style generators as they are lighter ... Read more
- [Helicopter Fuel Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-fuel-systems/): The fuel system in a helicopter is made up of two groups of components: the fuel supply system and the engine fuel control system. Fuel Supply System The supply system consists of a fuel tank or tanks, fuel quantity gauges, a shut-off valve, fuel filter, a fuel line to the engine, and possibly a primer and fuel pumps. [Figure 1] The fuel tanks are usually mounted to the airframe as close as possible to the CG. This way, as fuel is burned off, there is a negligible effect on the CG. A drain valve located on the bottom of the fuel ... Read more
- [Helicopter Main Rotor Systems and Configurations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-main-rotor-systems-and-configurations/): The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which generates lift. The rotor consists of a mast, hub, and rotor blades. The mast is a hollow cylindrical metal shaft which extends upwards from and is driven and sometimes supported by the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are then attached to the hub by any number of different methods. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor hub. There are three ... Read more
- [Helicopter Transmission System](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-transmission-system/): The transmission system transfers power from the engine to the main rotor, tail rotor, and other accessories during normal flight conditions. The main components of the transmission system are the main rotor transmission, tail rotor drive system, clutch, and freewheeling unit. The freewheeling unit or autorotative clutch allows the main rotor transmission to drive the tail rotor drive shaft during autorotation. In some helicopter designs, such as the Bell BH-206, the freewheeling unit is located in the accessory gearbox. Because it is part of the transmission system, the transmission lubricates it to ensure free rotation. Helicopter transmissions are normally lubricated and ... Read more
- [Helicopter Engines](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-engines/): Reciprocating Engines Reciprocating engines, also called piston engines, are generally used in smaller helicopters. Most training helicopters use reciprocating engines because they are relatively simple and inexpensive to operate. Turbine Engines Turbine engines are more powerful and are used in a wide variety of helicopters. They produce a tremendous amount of power for their size but are generally more expensive to operate. The turbine engine used in helicopters operates differently from those used in airplane applications. In most applications, the exhaust outlets simply release expended gases and do not contribute to the forward motion of the helicopter. Approximately 75 percent of ... Read more
- [Rotorcraft Flight Manual](https://flight-study.com/rotorcraft-flight-manual/): Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 requires pilot compliance with the operating limitations specified in approved rotorcraft flight manuals, markings, and placards. Originally, flight manuals were often characterized by a lack of essential information and followed whatever format and content the manufacturer deemed appropriate. This changed with the acceptance of the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) specification for a Pilot’s Operating Handbook, which established a standardized format for all general aviation airplane and rotorcraft flight manuals. The term “Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)” is often used in place of “Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM).”. However, if “Pilot’s ... Read more
- [Helicopter Antitorque and Drive Systems](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-antitorque-and-drive-systems/): Antitorque System Helicopters with a single, main rotor system require a separate antitorque system. This is most often accomplished through a variable pitch, antitorque rotor or tail rotor. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Antitorque rotor produces thrust to oppose torque Pilots vary the thrust of the antitorque system to maintain directional control whenever the main rotor torque changes, or to make heading changes while hovering. Most helicopters drive the tail rotor shaft from the transmission to ensure tail rotor rotation (and hence control) in the event that the engine quits. Usually, negative antitorque thrust is needed in autorotations to overcome transmission friction. ... Read more
- [Helicopter Swash Plate and Freewheeling Unit](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-swash-plate-and-freewheeling-unit/): Swash Plate Assembly The purpose of the swash plate is to convert stationary control inputs from the pilot into rotating inputs which can be connected to the rotor blades or control surfaces. It consists of two main parts: stationary swash plate and rotating swash plate. [Figure 1] The stationary swash plate is mounted around the main rotor mast and connected to the cyclic and collective controls by a series of pushrods. It is restrained from rotating by an antidrive link but can tilt in all directions and move vertically. The rotating swash plate is mounted to the stationary swash plate by ... Read more
- [Introduction to the Helicopter](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-the-helicopter/): A helicopter is an aircraft that is lifted and propelled by one or more horizontal rotors, each rotor consisting of two or more rotor blades. Helicopters are classified as rotorcraft or rotary-wing aircraft to distinguish them from fixed-wing aircraft, because the helicopter derives its source of lift from the rotor blades rotating around a mast. The word “helicopter” is adapted from the French hélicoptère, coined by Gustave de Ponton d’Amécourt in 1861. It is linked to the Greek words helix/helikos (“spiral” or “turning”) and pteron (“wing”). As an aircraft, the primary advantages of the helicopter are due to the rotor blades ... Read more
- [Role of the Controls to Manage Energy State](https://flight-study.com/role-of-the-controls-to-manage-energy-state/): An energy-centered approach clarifies the roles of the engine and flight controls beyond the simple “pitch for airspeed and power for altitude” by modeling how throttle and elevator inputs affect the airplane’s total mechanical energy. From an energy perspective, the problem of controlling vertical flight path and airspeed becomes one of handling the airplane’s energy state—the total amount of energy and its distribution over altitude and speed. Thus, rather than asking what controls altitude and what controls airspeed, a pilot can now ask what controls total energy and what controls its distribution over altitude and airspeed. Primary Energy Role of the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Airframe and Fuselage Construction](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-airframe-and-fuselage-construction/): Airframe Airframe discussions should explain that the airframe, or structure, of a helicopter can be made of different types of material. Figure 1 is an example of the many different materials that are used in the construction of a helicopter. The importance of learning the structures and construction materials of the helicopter is to help the student to determine the airworthiness of the helicopter and potential failures and hazards to be found on pre and post flight inspections. The goal is not to make the pilot into a helicopter aeronautical engineer but rather a safe pilot who can understand the full ... Read more
- [Helicopter Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-flight-controls/): When introducing a student to the flight controls of a helicopter, the instructor must ensure the student understands how each control affects the flight of the aircraft. [Figure 1] The student may not be comfortable with the helicopter controls for some time, but must understand the function of each control and the reactions of the other controls when control movements are made. For example, if increasing the collective pitch increases power. If the engine is manually controlled, the throttle must be adjusted to maintain revolutions per minute (rpm). If the helicopter powerplant has a governor, then the pilot must ensure that ... Read more
- [Forces Acting on the Helicopter Flight](https://flight-study.com/forces-acting-on-the-helicopter-flight/): Define and discuss the four forces acting on an aircraft in straight-and-level and unaccelerated flight. Give examples of how the combinations of these forces act on the airframe. Lift A very easy way to confuse new flight students is to throw a lot of obscure information at them with no concrete references or examples. Aerodynamics can be very difficult for the new student to understand because it is difficult to visualize what is happening to the rotor blades or tail rotor in flight. When teaching the student about lift and how the helicopter is able to obtain lift, the instructor must ... Read more
- [Introduction to the Helicopter](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-the-helicopter-flight-training/): The objective of the first flight lesson is to determine the student’s motivation and goals and introduce the student to: Training Procedures The introduction to training procedures offers the certificated flight instructor (CFI) an opportunity to better ascertain the student’s experience and background, which influence training. At this time, the CFI explains the general safety procedures, lay out of the school, the course syllabus and how it is used. This includes how, when, and where instruction will take place. The CFI also discusses the role of preflight and postflight briefings in the training program, as well as how he or she ... Read more
- [Single-Pilot Resource Management and Risk Management](https://flight-study.com/single-pilot-resource-management-and-risk-management/): Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) According to data presented at the 2005 International Helicopter Safety Symposium, the helicopter accident rate is 30 percent higher than the general aviation (GA) accident rate. Reducing this rate is an industry wide goal and the CFI plays an important role in reaching it by stressing single-pilot resource management (SRM) and risk management during flight training. As discussed in the Aviation Instructor section and the Aeronautical Knowledge section, SRM is the art and science of managing all resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Collision Avoidance](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-collision-avoidance/): While pilots often believe that having a CFI on board minimizes the possibility of a midair collision (MAC), FAA research reveals that flight instructors were on board the aircraft in 37 percent of the accidents studied. From a collision perspective, flight training is one of the most dangerous missions—an especially frightening fact, considering that flight instructors comprise less than 10 percent of the pilot population. See and Avoid As discussed in the Aviation Instructor’s section, the CFI must ensure from the start of flight training that the student develops the habit of maintaining airspace surveillance at all times. [Figure 1] If a student believes ... Read more
- [Instrument Approaches](https://flight-study.com/instrument-approaches/): This section discusses general planning and conduct of instrument approaches by pilots operating under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Parts 91,121, 125, and 135. The operations specifications (OpSpecs), standard operating procedures (SOPs), and any other FAA- approved documents for each commercial operator are the final authorities for individual authorizations and limitations as they relate to instrument approaches. While coverage of the various authorizations and approach limitations for all operators is beyond the scope of this section, an attempt is made to give examples from generic manuals where it is appropriate. CONTENTS Approach Planning Weather Considerations Aircraft ... Read more
- [Helicopter and Instructional Hazards](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-and-instructional-hazards/): Helicopter Hazards During the entire training program, CFIs should emphasize safe operation of the aircraft. The student must be introduced to and completely understand the flight characteristics of the type helicopter being flown. Loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE), dynamic rollover (DRO), and the meaning of and how to interpret the height velocity diagram are three topics of discussion for continuous review. By virtue of its many moving parts, the helicopter presents numerous hazards. [Figure 1] It is the responsibility of the CFI to teach safe operating practices in and around the aircraft. A CFI should draw to the attention of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Flight Safety Practices](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-flight-safety-practices/): A major component of the FAA’s mission is to improve the nation’s aviation safety record by conveying safety principles and practices through training, outreach, and education. The goal to reduce the number of accidents in the ever increasingly populated airways means safe flight practices are an important element of flight instruction. It is the CFI’s responsibility to incorporate flight safety into the program of training. Do not become complacent about safety while instructing. The CFI must always be vigilant about safety and must instill a safety-first attitude in the student. According to statistics from Helicopter Association International’s (HAI) Five-Year Comparative U.S. Civil Helicopter ... Read more
- [Role of the Examiner and Certificated Flight Instructor](https://flight-study.com/role-of-the-examiner-and-certificated-flight-instructor/): Role of the Examiner The subject of the PTS also offers the CFI an opportunity to discuss the role of the examiner who plays an important role in the FAA’s mission of promoting aviation safety by administering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight instructor certificates and associated ratings. To satisfy the need for pilot testing and certification services, the FAA delegates certain of these responsibilities to private individuals who are not FAA employees.  Appointed in accordance with 14 CFR section 183.23, a designated pilot examiner (DPE) is an individual who meets the qualification requirements of the Pilot Examiner’s Handbook, Order 8710.3, ... Read more
- [Practical Flight Instructor Strategies](https://flight-study.com/practical-flight-instructor-strategies/): As discussed in Aviation Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism post of the Aviation Instructor section, certificated flight instructors (CFIs) should remember they are a role model for the student. The flight instructor should demonstrate good aviation air sense and practices at all times. For the helicopter certificated flight instructor, this means: Flight instructors have the responsibility of producing the safest pilots possible. For that reason, certificated flight instructors should tirelessly encourage each student to learn as much as he or she is capable of and keep raising the bar toward the ultimate goal. When introducing lesson tasks, flight instructors should introduce the student ... Read more
- [Introduction to Helicopter Flight Training](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-helicopter-flight-training/): Purpose of Flight Training It is the helicopter instructor’s responsibility to discuss the overall purpose of flight training with the student. Explain that the goal of flight training is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills that provide the student with: Ensure the student understands that a helicopter operates in a three-dimensional environment and requires specific skills to control the aircraft: Keep in mind that an accomplished pilot demonstrates the ability to assess a situation quickly and accurately and to determine the correct procedure to be followed under the circumstance; to analyze accurately the probable results of a given set ... Read more
- [Helicopter Instrument Procedures](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-instrument-procedures/): This section presents information on IFR helicopter operations in the National Airspace System. Advances in avionics technology installed in helicopters such as Global Positioning System (GPS) and Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) are bringing approach procedures to heliports around the country. The ability to operate helicopters under IFR increases their utility and safety. Helicopter IFR operators have an excellent safety record due to the investment in IFR-equipped helicopters, development of instrument approach procedures (IAPs), and IFR-trained flight crews. The safety record of IFR operations in the Gulf of Mexico is equivalent to the safety record of the best-rated airlines. Manufacturers are ... Read more
- [Operational Limitations of Airborne Navigation Databases](https://flight-study.com/operational-limitations-of-airborne-navigation-databases/): Understanding the capabilities and limitations of the navigation systems installed in an aircraft is one of the pilot’s biggest concerns for IFR flight. Considering the vast number of RNAV systems and pilot interfaces available today, it is critical that pilots and flight crews be familiar with the manufacturer’s operating manual for each RNAV system they operate and achieve and retain proficiency operating those systems in the IFR environment. Most professional and general aviation pilots are familiar with the possible human factors issues related to flightdeck automation. It is particularly important to consider those issues when using airborne navigation databases. Although modern ... Read more
- [Path and Terminator Concept](https://flight-study.com/path-and-terminator-concept/): The path and terminator concept is a means to permit coding of terminal area procedures, SIDs, STARs, and approach procedures. Simply put, a textual description of a route or a terminal procedure is translated into a format that is useable in RNAV systems. One of the most important concepts for pilots to learn regarding the limitations of RNAV equipment has to do with the way these systems deal with the path and terminator field included in complex route records. The first RNAV systems were capable of only one type of navigation; they could fly directly to a fix. This was not a ... Read more
- [Airborne Navigation Databases](https://flight-study.com/airborne-navigation-databases/): Area Navigation (RNAV) systems, aeronautical applications, and functions that depend on databases are widespread. [Figure 1] Since the 1970s, installed flight systems have relied on airborne navigation databases to support their intended functions, such as navigation data used to facilitate the presentation of flight information to the flight crew and understanding and better visualization of the governing aeronautical flight charts. With the overwhelming upgrades to navigation systems and fully integrated flight management systems (FMS) that are now installed in almost all corporate and commercial aircraft, the need for reliable and consistent airborne navigation databases is more important than ever. The capabilities ... Read more
- [IFR Improvement Plans](https://flight-study.com/ifr-improvement-plans/): In the upcoming years, exciting new technologies will be developed and implemented to help ease air traffic congestion, add to system capacity, and enhance safety. Some of these seamless changes will be invisible to pilots. Others will entail learning new procedures, aircraft equipment, and systems that will introduce powerful new capabilities and dramatically increase the safety of all flight operations. Next Generation Air Transportation (NextGen) System Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) is a comprehensive overhaul of the National Airspace System (NAS) designed to make air travel more convenient and dependable, while ensuring flights are as safe and secure as possible. ... Read more
- [Airplane Emergency Response Systems](https://flight-study.com/airplane-emergency-response-systems/): Airplanes may have installed systems that provide alternatives in certain emergency situations. For example, ballistic parachute systems, if installed, may be deployed in an emergency allowing an airplane to descend slowly enough toward the ground such that occupants usually survive the resulting impact with minor or no injuries. Airplanes may also have an Emergency Autoland (EAL) system, which can take over control of the aircraft when necessary for a safe outcome. Ballistic Parachutes Deployment of an airplane ballistic parachute system results in the loss of the airframe, but deploying such systems within an acceptable flight regime prevents injuries and saves lives. ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Training Considerations](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-training-considerations/): Flight training in a multiengine airplane can be safely accomplished if both the instructor and the learner consider the following factors. The participants should conduct a preflight briefing of the objectives, maneuvers, expected learner actions, and completion standards before the flight begins. A clear understanding exists as to how simulated emergencies will be introduced, and what action the learner is expected to take. The introduction, practice, and testing of emergency procedures has always been a sensitive subject. Surprising a multiengine learner with an emergency without a thorough briefing beforehand creates a hazardous condition. Simulated engine failures, for example, can very quickly ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Engine-Inoperative Approach and Landing](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-engine-inoperative-approach-and-landing/): The approach and landing with OEI is essentially the same as a two-engine approach and landing. The traffic pattern should be flown at similar altitudes, airspeeds, and key positions as a two-engine approach. The differences are the reduced power available and the fact that the remaining thrust is asymmetrical. A higher-than-normal power setting is necessary on the operative engine. With adequate airspeed and performance, the landing gear can still be extended on the downwind leg. In which case it should be confirmed DOWN no later than abeam the intended point of landing. Performance permitting, initial extension of wing flaps (typically 10°) ... Read more
- [Viewing the Airplane as an Energy System](https://flight-study.com/viewing-the-airplane-as-an-energy-system/): The total mechanical energy of an airplane in flight is the sum of its potential energy from altitude and kinetic energy from airspeed. The potential energy is expressed as mgh, and the kinetic energy as ½ mV². Thus, the airplane’s total mechanical energy can be stated as: mgh + ½ mV² Where, m = massg = gravitational constanth = height (altitude)V = velocity (airspeed) A flying airplane is an “open” energy system, which means that the airplane can gain energy from some source (e.g., the fuel tanks) and lose energy to the environment (e.g., the surrounding air). It also means that ... Read more
- [Aircraft Weight & Balance](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-weight-balance/): This section begins with the basic principle of aircraft weight and balance control, emphasizing its importance and including examples of documentation furnished by the aircraft manufacturer and by the FAA to ensure the aircraft weight and balance records contain the proper data. Procedures for the preparation and the actual weighing of an aircraft are described, as are the methods of determining the location of the empty weight center of gravity (EWCG) relative to both the datum and the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). Loading computations for general aviation aircraft are discussed using both loading graphs and tables of weight and moment indexes. ... Read more
- [Airplane Night Approach Illusions and Emergencies](https://flight-study.com/airplane-night-approach-illusions-and-emergencies/): To prevent these illusions and their potentially hazardous consequences, pilots can: Anticipate the possibility of visual illusions during approaches to unfamiliar airports, particularly at night or in adverse weather conditions. Consult airport diagrams and the Chart Supplements for information on runway slope, terrain, and lighting. Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially during all approaches, day and night. If possible, conduct aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing. Use Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems for a visual reference or an electronic glideslope, whenever they are available. Utilize the visual descent point (VDP) found ... Read more
- [Airplane Flap Use During Approaches and Landings](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flap-use-during-approaches-and-landings/): The following general discussion applies to airplanes equipped with flaps. The pilot may use landing flaps during the descent to adjust lift and drag. Flap settings help determine the landing spot and the descent angle to that spot. [Figure 1 and Figure 2] Flap extension during approaches and landings provides several advantages by: Producing greater lift and permitting lower approach and landing speeds, Producing greater drag and permitting a steeper descent angle, Increasing forward visibility by allowing a lower pitch, and Reducing the length of the landing roll. The increased camber from flap deflection increases lift, primarily on the rear portion ... Read more
- [Flight Safety Practices and Procedures](https://flight-study.com/flight-safety-practices-and-procedures/): Safety Considerations In the interest of safety and good habit pattern formation, there are certain basic flight safety practices and procedures that should be emphasized by the flight instructor, and adhered to by both instructor and learner, beginning with the very first dual instruction flight. These include, but are not limited to, collision avoidance procedures including proper scanning techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of controls, and flight deck workload management. Collision Avoidance All pilots should be alert to the potential for midair collision and impending loss of separation. The general operating and flight rules in ... Read more
- [Flight Training Sources, ACS and Practical Tests](https://flight-study.com/flight-training-sources-acs-and-practical-tests/): Sources of Flight Training The major sources of flight training in the United States include FAA-approved pilot schools and training centers, non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools, and independent flight instructors. FAA-approved schools are those flight schools certificated by the FAA as pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1] Application for part 141 certification is voluntary, and the school needs to meet specific requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, and facilities. The school operates each course offering in accordance with an established curriculum that includes a training course outline (TCO) approved by the FAA. Each TCO contains enrollment prerequisites, ... Read more
- [Airplane Flying Training for Student and Aspiring Pilots](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flying-training-for-student-and-aspiring-pilots/): This section is designed to equip aspiring pilots with the foundational knowledge and skills required to begin their journey in aviation. Whether you’re just starting your flight training or working toward advanced certifications, this section serves as a reliable resource to support your progress. A Resource for Every Stage of Pilot Training This section is especially valuable for student pilots learning to fly fixed-wing aircraft, providing essential guidance on aircraft operation and flight maneuvers. It also assists those transitioning to new aircraft types or preparing for additional certificates and ratings. Even experienced pilots seeking to sharpen their skills and expand their ... Read more
- [Enhanced Flight Vision Systems and Instrument Approaches](https://flight-study.com/enhanced-flight-vision-systems-and-instrument-approaches/): An Enhanced Flight Vision System (EFVS) is an installed aircraft system which uses a head up display (HUD), or an equivalent display that is a head up presentation, to combine aircraft flight information and flight symbology, navigation guidance, and a real-time image of the external scene to the pilot on a single display. [Figure 1] Imaging sensors, which may be based on forward-looking infrared (FLIR), millimeter wave radiometry, millimeter wave radar, low-level light intensification, or other real-time imaging technologies, produce a real-time image of the outside scene. Combining the flight information, navigation guidance, and sensor imagery on a HUD or equivalent ... Read more
- [Helicopter Flight Training: Guide to Mastering the Skies](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-flight-training-guide-to-mastering-the-skies/): Helicopter flying is a unique and rewarding aviation discipline that requires precision, understanding, and hands-on experience. Our Helicopter Flight Training section serves as a comprehensive technical guide for students preparing to earn their Private Pilot, Commercial Pilot, or Certified Flight Instructor (CFI) certificates with a helicopter class rating. Whether you’re just beginning your aviation journey or advancing your skills as a professional, this resource is tailored to help you succeed. We understand that there are multiple ways to teach and perform helicopter flight maneuvers, and that different instructors may offer varying interpretations of aerodynamic theory and flight techniques. That’s why this ... Read more
- [Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/instrument-flying/): This Instrument Flying section is intended for instrument flight instructors and pilots preparing for instrument rating knowledge and practical tests. It serves as a comprehensive training reference, providing foundational material used in instrument ground training and flight instruction. For more in-depth coverage of specific systems or procedures, pilots and instructors should consult additional FAA publications and approved training resources. The material in this section aligns with FAA training and certification standards. Because there are multiple accepted methods for teaching flight procedures and explaining aerodynamic principles, this text presents widely recognized techniques and concepts used in instrument training. The explanations and procedures ... Read more
- [Aeronautical Knowledge for Pilots: Complete Guide](https://flight-study.com/aeronautical-knowledge-for-pilots-complete-guide/): The Aeronautical Knowledge section provides essential aviation theory and foundational ground school knowledge required for student pilots, private pilots, and advanced certificate holders. This structured series covers aerodynamics, aircraft systems, weather theory, navigation, airspace, regulations, and aeronautical decision-making aligned with FAA knowledge test standards. Use this page as your complete pilot training knowledge hub. Each section below builds progressively to prepare you for the FAA written exam, checkride oral examination, and safe real-world flight operations. How to Use This Series Follow the recommended study order if you are a student pilot. Use individual sections for focused review before your knowledge test. ... Read more
- [Instrument Procedures](https://flight-study.com/instrument-procedures/): The Instrument Procedures section is designed as a technical reference for all pilots who operate under instrument flight rules (IFR) in the National Airspace System (NAS). It expands and updates information contained in the Instrument Flying section, and introduces advanced information for IFR operations. Instrument flight instructors, instrument pilots, and instrument students will also find this section a valuable resource since it is used as a reference for the Airline Transport Pilot and Instrument Knowledge Tests and for the Practical Test Standards. It also provides detailed coverage of instrument charts and procedures including IFR takeoff, departure, en route, arrival, approach, and landing. Safety information covering relevant subjects such ... Read more
- [Aviation Instructor](https://flight-study.com/aviation-instructor/): The Aviation Instructor section is developed to help beginning instructors understand and apply the fundamentals of instruction. Following posts provide aviation instructors with up­to-date information on learning and teaching, and how to relate this information to the task of teaching aeronautical knowledge and skills to learners. Experienced aviation instructors will also find the updated information useful for improving their effectiveness in training activities. Risk Management and Single-Pilot Resource Management Risk Management and Single-Pilot Resource Management Defining Risk Management Three-P Model for Pilots Hazard List for Aviation Technicians Pilot Self-Assessment Situational Awareness Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) Aeronautical Decision-Making Teaching Decision-Making Skills Assessing ... Read more
- [Handbooks](https://flight-study.com/handbooks/): FAA handbooks Airplane Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-3C Helicopter Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-21B Instrument Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-15B Instrument Procedures Handbook FAA-H-8083-16B Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge FAA-H-8083-25C Weight-Shift Control Aircraft Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-5 Glider Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-13A Balloon Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-11A Powered Parachute Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-29 Risk Management Handbook FAA-H-8083-2A Aviation Weather Handbook FAA-H-8083-28 Weight and Balance Handbook FAA-H-8083-1B Weight-Shift Control Aircraft Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-5 Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide FAA-G-8082-22 Instrument Rating Airman Certification Standards FAA-S-ACS-8B Aviation Instructor’s Handbook – FAA-H-8083-9 Helicopter Instructor’s Handbook – FAA-H-8083-4 ASA Handbooks Flying the Mountains – A Training Manual for Flying Single-Engine Aircraft ... Read more
- [Instrument Approach Altitudes](https://flight-study.com/instrument-approach-altitudes/): Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in four different configurations: minimum, maximum, recommended, and mandatory. The U.S. Government distributes approach charts produced by the FAA. Altitudes are depicted on these charts in the profile view with an underscore or overscore, or both to identify them as minimum, maximum, or mandatory, respectively. Minimum altitudes are depicted with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value (e.g., 3000). Maximum altitudes are depicted with the altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or below the depicted value (e.g., 4800). Mandatory altitudes are depicted with ... Read more
- [Aircraft Performance Considerations](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-performance-considerations/): All operators are required to comply with specific airplane performance limitations that govern approach and landing. Many of these requirements must be considered prior to the origination of flight. The primary goal of these performance considerations is to ensure that the aircraft can remain clear of obstructions throughout the approach, landing, and go-around phase of flight, as well as land within the distance required by the FAA. Although the majority of in-depth performance planning for an instrument flight is normally done prior to the aircraft’s departure, a general review of performance considerations is usually conducted prior to commencing an instrument approach. ... Read more
- [En Route Operations](https://flight-study.com/en-route-operations/): The en route phase of flight is defined as that segment of flight from the termination point of a departure procedure to the origination point of an arrival procedure. The procedures employed in the en route phase of flight are governed by a set of specific flight standards established by 14 CFR [Figure], FAA Order 8260.3, and related publications. These standards establish courses to be flown, obstacle clearance criteria, minimum altitudes, navigation performance, and communications requirements. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14 Aeronautics and Space
- [En Route Reporting Procedures](https://flight-study.com/en-route-reporting-procedures/): In addition to acknowledging a handoff to another Center en route controller, there are reports that should be made without a specific request from ATC. Certain reports should be made at all times regardless of whether a flight is in radar contact with ATC, while others are necessary only if radar contact has been lost or terminated. [Figure] ATC reporting procedures Non-Radar Position Reports If radar contact has been lost or radar service terminated, the CFRs require pilots to provide ATC with position reports over designated VORs and intersections along their route of flight. These compulsory reporting points are depicted on ... Read more
- [Required Navigation Performance](https://flight-study.com/required-navigation-performance/): Required navigation performance (RNP) is RNAV with onboard navigation monitoring and alerting. RNP is also a statement of navigation performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace. A critical component of RNP is the ability of the aircraft navigation system to monitor its achieved navigation performance, and to identify for the pilot whether the operational requirement is, or is not being met during an operation. This onboard performance monitoring and alerting capability; therefore, allows a lessened reliance on ATC intervention (via radar monitoring, automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B), multilateration, communications), and/or route separation to achieve the overall safety of the operation. RNP ... Read more
- [Computer Navigation Performance](https://flight-study.com/computer-navigation-performance/): An integral part of RNAV using en route charts typically involves the use of airborne navigation databases. Because GPS receivers are basically “to-to” navigators, they must always be navigating to a defined point. On overlay approaches, if no pronounceable five-character name is published for an approach waypoint or fix, it has been given a database identifier consisting of letters and numbers. These points appear in the list of waypoints in the approach procedure database, but may not appear on the approach chart. A point used for the purpose of defining the navigation track for an airborne computer system (i.e., GPS or ... Read more
- [Commuter Category and Large Aircraft Weight and Balance Control](https://flight-study.com/commuter-category-and-large-aircraft-weight-and-balance-control/): This section discusses general guidelines and procedures for weighing large fixed-wing aircraft exceeding a takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds. Several examples of center of gravity (CG) determination for various operational aspects of these aircraft are also included. Persons seeking approval for a weight and balance control program for aircraft operated under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, subpart K, 121, 125, or 135 should consult with the Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) or Certificate Management Office (CMO) that has jurisdiction in their area. Additional information on weight and balance for large aircraft can be found ... Read more
- [Use of Computer for Weight and Balance Computations](https://flight-study.com/use-of-computer-for-weight-and-balance-computations/): Almost all weight and balance problems involve only simple math. This allows slide rules and hand-held electronic calculators to relieve much of the tedium involved with these problems. This section compares the methods of determining the center of gravity (CG) of an airplane while it is being weighed. First, it shows how to determine the CG using a simple electronic calculator, then solves the same problem using an E6-B flight computer. Finally, it shows how to solve it using a dedicated electronic flight computer. Examples of typical weight and balance problems (solved with an electronic calculator) that pilots and airframe and ... Read more
- [Human Behavior](https://flight-study.com/human-behavior/): Derek’s learner, Jason, is very smart and able to retain a lot of information, but has a tendency to rush through the less exciting material and shows interest and attentiveness only when performing tasks that he finds to be interesting. This concerns Derek because he is worried that Jason will overlook many important details and rush through procedures. For a homework assignment Jason was told to take a very thorough look at Preflight Procedures and that for his next flight lesson they would discuss each step in detail. As Derek predicted, Jason found this assignment to be boring and was not ... Read more
- [Assessing SRM Skills](https://flight-study.com/assessing-srm-skills/): A learner’s performance is often assessed only on a technical level. The instructor determines whether maneuvers are technically accurate and that procedures are performed in the right order. In SRM assessment, instructors should learn to assess on a different level. How did the learner arrive at a particular decision? What resources were used? Was risk assessed accurately when a go/no-go decision was made? Did the learner maintain situational awareness in the traffic pattern? Was workload managed effectively during a cross-country flight? How does the learner handle stress and fatigue? Instructors should continually evaluate learner decision-making ability and offer suggestions for improvement. ... Read more
- [Teaching Decision-Making Skills](https://flight-study.com/teaching-decision-making-skills/): When instructor pilots discuss system safety, they generally worry about the loss of traditional stick-and-rudder skills. The fear is that emphasis on items such as risk management, ADM, SRM, and situational awareness detracts from the training necessary in developing safe pilots. It is important to understand that system safety flight training occurs in three phases. First, there are the traditional stick and rudder maneuvers. In order to apply the critical thinking skills that are to follow, pilots should develop a high degree of confidence in their ability to fly the aircraft. Next, the tenets of system safety are introduced into the ... Read more
- [Aeronautical Decision-Making](https://flight-study.com/aeronautical-decision-making/): Aviation training and flight operations are now seen as a system rather than individual concepts. The goal of system safety is for pilots to utilize all four concepts (ADM, risk management, situational awareness, and SRM) so that risk can be reduced to the lowest possible level. ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. Risk management is a decision-making process designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action associated with each ... Read more
- [Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)](https://flight-study.com/single-pilot-resource-management-srm/): Single pilot resource management (SRM) is defined as the art and science of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior to and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight. SRM includes the concepts of Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM), Risk Management (RM), Task Management (TM), Automation Management (AM), Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) Awareness, and Situational Awareness (SA). SRM training helps the pilot maintain situational awareness by managing the automation and associated aircraft control and navigation tasks. This enables the pilot to accurately identify, assess, and manage risk and ... Read more
- [Situational Awareness](https://flight-study.com/situational-awareness/): Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight. Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding of the relative significance of these factors and their future impact on the flight. When situationally aware, the pilot has an overview of the total operation and is not fixated on one perceived significant factor. Some of the elements inside the aircraft to be considered are the status of aircraft systems, pilot, and passengers. In addition, an awareness of the environmental conditions of the flight, such ... Read more
- [Pilot Self-Assessment](https://flight-study.com/pilot-self-assessment/): Setting personal minimums is an important step in mitigating risk, and safe pilots know how to properly self-assess. For example, in the opening scenario, the aircraft Mary plans to fly may have a maximum crosswind component of 15 knots listed in the aircraft flight manual (AFM), but she only has experience with 10 knots of direct crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 10 knot-crosswind component without additional training. Therefore, the 10 knot-crosswind experience level should be Mary’s personal limitation until additional training with Daniel provides her with additional experience for flying in crosswinds that exceed 10 knots. Pilots in ... Read more
- [Hazard List for Aviation Technicians](https://flight-study.com/hazard-list-for-aviation-technicians/): AMTs should learn about risk management early in training. Instructors tasked with integrating risk management into instruction can turn to hazard assessments that identify the safety risks associated with the facility being used, the tools used in the procedure, and/or the job being performed. The process for identifying hazards can be accomplished through the use of checklists, lessons learned, compliance inspections/audits, accidents/near misses, regulatory developments, and brainstorming sessions. For example, aviation accident reports from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) can be used to generate discussions pertaining to faulty maintenance that led to aircraft accidents. All available sources should be used ... Read more
- [Three-P Model for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/three-p-model-for-pilots/): As we have just learned with the Identify, Assess, & Mitigate model, risk management is a decision-making process designed to identify or perceive hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of action to mitigate the risk. For example, the Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) model for aeronautical decision-making (ADM) offers a simple, practical, and structured way for pilots to manage risk. [Figure] 3P Model (Perceive, Process, and Perform) To help understand the 3P model, it may be easier to relate this concept to the three steps of the Risk Management Process discussed earlier ... Read more
- [Defining Risk Management](https://flight-study.com/defining-risk-management/): Risk is defined as the probability and possible severity of accident or loss from exposure to various hazards, including injury to people and loss of resources. [Figure 1] All Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) operations in the United States involve risk and benefit from decisions that include risk assessment and risk management. Risk management, a formalized way of thinking about these topics, is the logical process of weighing the potential costs of risks against the possible benefits of allowing those risks to stand uncontrolled. Figure 1. Types of risk Risk management is a decision-making process designed to identify hazards systematically, assess the ... Read more
- [Risk Management and Single-Pilot Resource Management](https://flight-study.com/risk-management-and-single-pilot-resource-management/): “Pull the throttle back!” Lenore, a flight instructor, ordered the learner, Jennifer, as the revolutions per minute (rpm) climbed past past 2,000 on engine start. “I did, I did!” Both Jennifer and Lenore grabbed the mixture and pulled. The engine went from a deafening roar to silence. They looked at each other. “What happened?” asked Jennifer. “I don’t know. Let’s check the engine,” Lenore said. Ten minutes later, they had removed the cowling from the airplane. A quick engine check gave them the answer. The throttle rod-end was not connected to the carburetor arm—no bolt, no nut, just air between the ... Read more
- [Vision in Flight](https://flight-study.com/vision-in-flight/): Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Most of the things perceived while flying are visual or heavily supplemented by vision. As remarkable and vital as it is, vision is subject to limitations, such as illusions and blind spots. The more a pilot understands about the eyes and how they function, the easier it is to use vision effectively and compensate for potential problems. The eye functions much like a camera. Its structure includes an aperture, a lens, a mechanism for focusing, and a surface for registering images. Light enters through the cornea at the front ... Read more
- [Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot Performance](https://flight-study.com/health-and-physiological-factors-affecting-pilot-performance/): A number of health factors and physiological effects can be linked to flying. Some are minor, while others are important enough to require special attention to ensure safety of flight. In some cases, physiological factors can lead to inflight emergencies. Some important medical factors that a pilot should be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, middle ear and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion sickness, carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, stress and fatigue, dehydration, and heatstroke. Other subjects include the effects of alcohol and drugs, anxiety, and excess nitrogen in the blood after scuba diving. Hypoxia Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen.” ... Read more
- [Obtaining a Medical Certificate For Pilot](https://flight-study.com/obtaining-a-medical-certificate-for-pilot/): Most pilots must have a valid medical certificate to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. Glider and free balloon pilots are not required to hold a medical certificate. Sport pilots may hold either a medical certificate or a valid state driver’s license. Regardless of whether a medical certificate or drivers license is required, 14 CFR 61.53 requires every pilot not to act as a crewmember if they know, or have reason to know, of any medical condition that would make them unable to operate the aircraft in a safe manner. Acquisition of a medical certificate requires an examination by an ... Read more
- [Lost Procedures and Flight Diversion](https://flight-study.com/lost-procedures-and-flight-diversion/): Lost Procedures Getting lost in flight is a potentially dangerous situation, especially when low on fuel. If a pilot becomes lost, there are some good common sense procedures to follow. If a town or city cannot be seen, the first thing to do is climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditions. An increase in altitude increases radio and navigation reception range and also increases radar coverage. If flying near a town or city, it may be possible to read the name of the town on a water tower. If the aircraft has a navigational radio, such as a VOR or ... Read more
- [Ground-Based Navigation (Part 2)](https://flight-study.com/ground-based-navigation-part-2/): Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) Many general aviation-type aircraft are equipped with ADF radio receiving equipment. To navigate using the ADF, the pilot tunes the receiving equipment to a ground station known as a nondirectional radio beacon (NDB). The NDB stations normally operate in a low or medium frequency band of 200 to 415 kHz. The frequencies are readily available on aeronautical charts or in the Chart Supplement U.S. All radio beacons, except compass locators, transmit a continuous three-letter identification in code, except during voice transmissions. A compass locator, which is associated with an instrument landing system, transmits a two-letter identification. Standard ... Read more
- [Ground-Based Navigation (Part 1)](https://flight-study.com/ground-based-navigation-part-1/): Advances in navigational radio receivers installed in aircraft, the development of aeronautical charts that show the exact location of ground transmitting stations and their frequencies, along with refined flight deck instrumentation make it possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any point desired. Although precision in navigation is obtainable through the proper use of this equipment, beginning pilots should use this equipment to supplement navigation by visual reference to the ground (pilotage). This method provides the pilot with an effective safeguard against disorientation in the event of radio malfunction. There are three radio navigation systems available for use for ... Read more
- [Filing a VFR Flight Plan](https://flight-study.com/filing-a-vfr-flight-plan/): Filing a flight plan is not required by regulations; however, it is a good operating practice since the information contained in the flight plan can be used in search and rescue in the event of an emergency. Flight plans can be filed in the air by radio, but it is best to file a flight plan by phone just before departing. After takeoff, contact the FSS by radio and give them the takeoff time so the flight plan can be activated. When a VFR flight plan is filed, it is held by the FSS until 1 hour after the proposed departure ... Read more
- [Charting the Course](https://flight-study.com/charting-the-course/): Once the weather has been checked and some preliminary planning completed, it is time to chart the course and determine the data needed to accomplish the flight. The following sections provide a logical sequence to follow in charting the course, complete a flight log, and filing a flight plan. In the following example, a trip is planned based on the following data and the sectional chart excerpt in Figure 1. Figure 1. Sectional chart excerpt Route of flight: Chickasha Airport direct to Guthrie Airport True airspeed (TAS)……………………….115 knotsWinds aloft…………………………………….360° at 10 knotsUsable fuel…………………………………….38 gallonsFuel rate………………………………………..8 GPHDeviation……………………………………….+2° Steps in Charting the Course ... Read more
- [Flight Planning](https://flight-study.com/flight-planning/): Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 states, in part, that before beginning a flight, the pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft shall become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. For flights not in the vicinity of an airport, this must include information on available current weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which the PIC has been advised by ATC. Assembling Necessary Material The pilot should collect the necessary material well before beginning the flight. An appropriate current ... Read more
- [Dead Reckoning](https://flight-study.com/dead-reckoning/): Dead reckoning is navigation solely by means of computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction. The products derived from these variables, when adjusted by wind speed and velocity, are heading and GS. The predicted heading takes the aircraft along the intended path and the GS establishes the time to arrive at each checkpoint and the destination. Except for flights over water, dead reckoning is usually used with pilotage for cross-country flying. The heading and GS, as calculated, is constantly monitored and corrected by pilotage as observed from checkpoints. Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis If there is no wind, the aircraft’s ... Read more
- [Pilotage](https://flight-study.com/pilotage/): Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints. It is a method of navigation that can be used on any course that has adequate checkpoints, but it is more commonly used in conjunction with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation. The checkpoints selected should be prominent features common to the area of the flight. Choose checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features, such as roads, rivers, railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines. If possible, select features that make useful boundaries or brackets on each side of the course, such as highways, rivers, railroads, and mountains. A pilot can ... Read more
- [Basic Calculations for Flight](https://flight-study.com/basic-calculations-for-flight/): Before a cross-country flight, a pilot should make common calculations for time, speed, and distance, and the amount of fuel required. Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours Frequently, it is necessary to convert minutes into equivalent hours when solving speed, time, and distance problems. To convert minutes to hours, divide by 60 (60 minutes = 1 hour). Thus, 30 minutes is 30/60 = 0.5 hour. To convert hours to minutes, multiply by 60. Thus, 0.75 hour equals 0.75 × 60 = 45 minutes. Time T = D/GSTo find the time (T) in flight, divide the distance (D) by the GS. The time ... Read more
- [Pilot Responsibility](https://flight-study.com/pilot-responsibility/): It is important for pilots to understand the realization that the derived safety benefits of data link depends heavily upon the pilot’s understanding of the specific system’s capabilities and limitations which are listed below. Product latency – be aware of the time stamp or “valid until” time on the particular data link information displayed in the flightdeck. For example, since initial processing and transmission of NEXRAD data can take several minutes, pilots must assume that data link weather information will always be a minimum of seven to eight minutes older than shown on the time stamp and only use data link ... Read more
- [Electronic Flight Displays and Multi-Function Display Weather](https://flight-study.com/electronic-flight-displays-and-multi-function-display-weather/): Many aircraft manufacturers now include data link weather services with new electronic flight display (EFD) systems. EFDs give a pilot access to many of the data link weather services available. Figure 1. Information page Products available to a pilot on the display pictured in Figure 1 are listed as follows. The letters in parentheses indicate the soft key to press in order to access the data. Graphical NEXRAD data (NEXRAD) Graphical METAR data (METAR) Textual METAR data Textual terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAF) City forecast data Graphical wind data (WIND) Graphical echo tops (ECHO T,,,OPS) Graphical cloud tops (CLD TOPS) Graphical lightning ... Read more
- [ATC Radar Weather Displays](https://flight-study.com/atc-radar-weather-displays/): Although ATC systems cannot always detect the presence or absence of clouds, they can often determine the intensity of a precipitation area, but the specific character of that area (snow, rain, hail, VIRGA, etc.) cannot be determined. For this reason, ATC refers to all weather areas displayed on ATC radar scopes as “precipitation.” ARTCC facilities normally use a Weather and Radar Processor (WARP) to display a mosaic of data obtained from multiple NEXRAD sites. There is a time delay between actual conditions and those displayed to the controller. The precipitation data on the ARTCC controller’s display could be up to 6 ... Read more
- [Weather Charts](https://flight-study.com/weather-charts/): Weather charts are graphic charts that depict current or forecast weather. They provide an overall picture of the United States and should be used in the beginning stages of flight planning. Typically, weather charts show the movement of major weather systems and fronts. Surface analysis, weather depiction, and significant weather prognostic charts are sources of current weather information. Significant weather prognostic charts provide an overall forecast weather picture. Surface Analysis Chart The surface analysis chart depicts an analysis of the current surface weather. [Figure 1] This chart is transmitted every 3 hours and covers the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Forecasts](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-forecasts/): Observed weather condition reports are often used in the creation of forecasts for the same area. A variety of different forecast products are produced and designed to be used in the preflight planning stage. The printed forecasts that pilots need to be familiar with are the terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF), aviation area forecast (FA), inflight weather advisories (SIGMET, AIRMET), and the winds and temperatures aloft forecast (FB). Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) A TAF is a report established for the five statute mile radius around an airport. TAF reports are usually given for larger airports. Each TAF is valid for a 24 ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Reports](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-reports/): Aviation weather reports are designed to give accurate depictions of current weather conditions. Each report provides current information that is updated at different times. Some typical reports are METARs and PIREPs. Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) A METAR is an observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format. While the METAR code has been adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make modifications to the code. Normally, these differences are minor but necessary to accommodate local procedures or particular units of measure. This discussion of METAR covers elements used in the United States. METARs are issued on a ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Briefings](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-briefings/): Prior to every flight, pilots should gather all information vital to the nature of the flight. This includes an appropriate weather briefing obtained from a specialist at a FSS. For weather specialists to provide an appropriate weather briefing, they need to know which of the three types of briefings is needed—standard, abbreviated, or outlook. Other helpful information is whether the flight is visual flight rules (VFR) or IFR, aircraft identification and type, departure point, estimated time of departure (ETD), flight altitude, route of flight, destination, and estimated time en route (ETE). This information is recorded in the flight plan system and ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Service Outlets](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-service-outlets/): Service outlets are government, government contract, or private facilities that provide aviation weather services. Several different government agencies, including the FAA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the NWS work in conjunction with private aviation companies to provide different means of accessing weather information. Flight Service Station (FSS) The FSS is the primary source for preflight weather information. A preflight weather briefing from an FSS can be obtained 24 hours a day by calling 1-800-WX BRIEF from anywhere in the United States and Puerto Rico. Telephone numbers for FSS can be found in the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather Observations](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-observations/): The data gathered from surface and upper altitude observations form the basis of all weather forecasts, advisories, and briefings. There are four types of weather observations: surface, upper air, radar, and satellite. Surface Aviation Weather Observations Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a compilation of elements of the current weather at individual ground stations across the United States. The network is made up of government and privately contracted facilities that provide continuous up-to-date weather information. Automated weather sources, such as the Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS), Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOS), as well as other automated facilities, also play a major ... Read more
- [Understanding Aircraft Performance Charts and Estimation](https://flight-study.com/understanding-aircraft-performance-charts-and-estimation/): Performance charts allow a pilot to predict the takeoff, climb, cruise, and landing performance of an aircraft. These charts, provided by the manufacturer, are included in the AFM/POH. Information the manufacturer provides on these charts has been gathered from test flights conducted in a new aircraft, under normal operating conditions while using average piloting skills, and with the aircraft and engine in good working order. Engineers record the flight data and create performance charts based on the behavior of the aircraft during the test flights. By using these performance charts, a pilot can determine the runway length needed to take off ... Read more
- [Determining Loaded Weight and CG](https://flight-study.com/determining-loaded-weight-and-cg/): There are various methods for determining the loaded weight and CG of an aircraft. There is the computational method as well as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by the aircraft manufacturer. Computational Method The following is an example of the computational method involving the application of basic math functions.     Aircraft Allowances:         Maximum gross weight………………….3,400 pounds         CG range………………………………………78–86 inches     Given:         Weight of front seat occupants………….340 pounds         Weight of rear seat occupants…………..350 pounds         Fuel…………………………………………………..75 gallons         Weight of baggage in area 1………………..80 pounds List the weight of the ... Read more
- [Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity](https://flight-study.com/balance-stability-and-center-of-gravity/): Balance refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft, and is important to stability and safety in flight. The CG is a point at which the aircraft would balance if it were suspended at that point. The primary concern in balancing an aircraft is the fore and aft location of the CG along the longitudinal axis. The CG is not necessarily a fixed point; its location depends on the distribution of weight in the aircraft. As variable load items are shifted or expended, there is a resultant shift in CG location. The distance between the forward and back limits ... Read more
- [Weight Control](https://flight-study.com/weight-control/): As discussed in earlier, Aerodynamics of Flight, weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the center of the Earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and the acceleration acting on the body. Weight is a major factor in aircraft construction and operation and demands respect from all pilots. The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft down toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that counteracts weight and sustains an aircraft in flight. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited by the airfoil design, angle ... Read more
- [Airworthiness Directives and Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities](https://flight-study.com/airworthiness-directives-and-aircraft-owner-operator-responsibilities/): Airworthiness Directives A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other causes. Airworthiness Directives , under 14 CFR, part 39, define the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. ADs are used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify the conditions under which the ... Read more
- [Preventive Maintenance](https://flight-study.com/preventive-maintenance/): Preventive maintenance is regarded as simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts, not involving complex assembly operations. Allowed items of preventative maintenance are listed and limited to the items of 14 CFR part 43, appendix A(c). Maintenance Entries All pilots who perform preventive maintenance must make an entry in the maintenance record of the aircraft. The entry must include the following information: A description of the work, such as “changed oil (Shell Aero-50) at 2,345 hours” The date of completion of the work performed The pilot’s name, signature, certificate number, and type of certificate held Examples ... Read more
- [Minimum Equipment Lists and Operations With Inoperative Equipment](https://flight-study.com/minimum-equipment-lists-and-operations-with-inoperative-equipment/): Under 14 CFR, all aircraft instruments and installed equipment are required to be operative prior to each departure. When the FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept for 14 CFR part 91 operations, it allowed aircraft to be operated with inoperative equipment determined to be nonessential for safe flight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within the guidelines of part 91. The FAA has two acceptable methods of deferring maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91. They are the deferral ... Read more
- [Aircraft Inspections](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-inspections/): Under 14 CFR part 91, the primary responsibility for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition falls on the owner or operator of the aircraft. Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft during the time between required inspections by having any defects corrected. Under 14 CFR, part 91, subpart E, all civil aircraft are required to be inspected at specific intervals to determine the overall condition. The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the aircraft is engaged. All aircraft need to be inspected at least once every ... Read more
- [Aircraft Documents](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-documents/): Certificate of Aircraft Registration Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered with the FAA Aircraft Registry. The Certificate of Aircraft Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times. [Figure 1] Figure 1. AC Form 8050-3, Certificate of Aircraft Registration The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for operations when: The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign country The aircraft’s registration is canceled upon written request of the certificate holder The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped The ownership of the ... Read more
- [Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM)](https://flight-study.com/airplane-flight-manuals-afm/): Flight manuals and operating handbooks are concise reference books that provide specific information about a particular aircraft or subject. They contain basic facts, information, and/or instructions for the pilot about the operation of an aircraft, flying techniques, etc., and are intended to be kept on hand for ready reference. The aircraft owner/information manual is a document developed by the aircraft manufacturer and contains general information about the make and model of the aircraft. The manual is not approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and is not specific to an individual aircraft. The manual provides general information about the operation of ... Read more
- [Angle of Attack Indicators](https://flight-study.com/angle-of-attack-indicators/): An Angle of Attack (AOA) indicator is an important flight instrument that helps pilots monitor the wing’s aerodynamic performance. Unlike airspeed, which can vary depending on flight conditions, an AOA indicator provides real-time information about how close the wing is to reaching its critical angle of attack, making it a valuable tool for improving flight safety and stall awareness. The purpose of an AOA indicator is to give the pilot better situational awareness of the aerodynamic health of the airfoil. This is also referred to as stall margin awareness. More simply explained, it is the margin that exists between the current ... Read more
- [Aircraft Anti-Ice and Deice Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-anti-ice-and-deice-systems/): Anti-icing equipment is designed to prevent the formation of ice, while deicing equipment is designed to remove ice once it has formed. These systems protect the leading edge of wing and tail surfaces, pitot and static port openings, fuel tank vents, stall warning devices, windshields, and propeller blades. Ice detection lighting may also be installed on some aircraft to determine the extent of structural icing during night flights. Most light aircraft have only a heated pitot tube and are not certified for flight in icing. These light aircraft have limited cross-country capability in the cooler climates during late fall, winter, and ... Read more
- [Aircraft Oxygen Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-oxygen-systems/): Crew and passengers use oxygen systems, in conjunction with pressurization systems, to prevent hypoxia. Regulations require, at a minimum, flight crews have and use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes exposure to cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000 feet. Use of supplemental oxygen is required immediately upon exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet. Every aircraft occupant, above 15,000 feet cabin pressure altitude, must have supplemental oxygen. However, based on a person’s physical characteristics and condition, a person may feel the effects of oxygen deprivation at much lower altitudes. Some people flying above 10,000 feet during the day may experience ... Read more
- [Pressurized Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/pressurized-aircraft/): Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons. First, an aircraft flown at high altitude consumes less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude because the aircraft is more efficient at a high altitude. Second, bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by flying in relatively smooth air above the storms. Many modern aircraft are being designed to operate at high altitudes, taking advantage of that environment. In order to fly at higher altitudes, the aircraft must be pressurized or suitable supplemental oxygen must be provided for each occupant. It is ... Read more
- [Aircraft Hydraulic Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-hydraulic-systems/): There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in aircraft, depending on the complexity of the aircraft. For example, a hydraulic system is often used on small airplanes to operate wheel brakes, retractable landing gear, and some constant-speed propellers. On large airplanes, a hydraulic system is used for flight control surfaces, wing flaps, spoilers, and other systems. A basic hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pump (either hand, electric, or engine-driven), a filter to keep the fluid clean, a selector valve to control the direction of flow, a relief valve to relieve excess pressure, and an actuator. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Basic ... Read more
- [Aircraft Electrical System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-electrical-system/): Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14- or a 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical system. A basic aircraft electrical system consists of the following components: Alternator/generator Battery Master/battery switch Alternator/generator switch Bus bar, fuses, and circuit breakers Voltage regulator Ammeter/loadmeter Associated electrical wiring Engine-driven alternators or generators supply electric current to the electrical system. They also maintain a sufficient electrical charge in the battery. Electrical energy stored in a battery provides a source of electrical power for starting the engine and a limited supply of electrical power for use in the event the alternator or generator fails. Most DC generators ... Read more
- [Aircraft Heating System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-heating-system/): There are many different types of aircraft heating systems that are available depending on the type of aircraft. Regardless of which type or the safety features that accompany them, it is always important to reference the specific aircraft operator’s manual and become knowledgeable about the heating system. Each has different repair and inspection criteria that should be precisely followed. Fuel Fired Heaters A fuel fired heater is a small mounted or portable space-heating device. The fuel is brought to the heater by using piping from a fuel tank, or taps into the aircraft’s fuel system. A fan blows air into a ... Read more
- [Aircraft Refueling Procedures](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-refueling-procedures/): Static electricity is formed by the friction of air passing over the surfaces of an aircraft in flight and by the flow of fuel through the hose and nozzle during refueling. Nylon, Dacron, or wool clothing is especially prone to accumulate and discharge static electricity from the person to the funnel or nozzle. To guard against the possibility of static electricity igniting fuel fumes, a ground wire should be attached to the aircraft before the fuel cap is removed from the tank. Because both the aircraft and refueler have different static charges, bonding both components to each other is critical. By ... Read more
- [Airframe Fuel Systems](https://flight-study.com/airframe-fuel-systems/): The fuel system is designed to provide an uninterrupted flow of clean fuel from the fuel tanks to the engine. The fuel must be available to the engine under all conditions of engine power, altitude, attitude, and during all approved flight maneuvers. Two common classifications apply to fuel systems in small aircraft: gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems. Gravity-Feed System The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to transfer the fuel from the tanks to the engine. For example, on high-wing airplanes, the fuel tanks are installed in the wings. This places the fuel tanks above the carburetor, and the fuel is ... Read more
- [Aircraft Turbine Engines](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-turbine-engines/): An aircraft turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion chambers, a turbine section, and exhaust. Thrust is produced by increasing the velocity of the air flowing through the engine. Turbine engines are highly desirable aircraft powerplants. They are characterized by smooth operation and a high power-to-weight ratio, and they use readily available jet fuel. Prior to recent advances in material, engine design, and manufacturing processes, the use of turbine engines in small/light production aircraft was cost prohibitive. Today, several aviation manufacturers are producing or plan to produce small/light turbine-powered aircraft. These smaller turbine-powered aircraft typically seat between three and ... Read more
- [Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)](https://flight-study.com/full-authority-digital-engine-control-fadec/): FADEC is a system consisting of a digital computer and ancillary components that control an aircraft’s engine and propeller. First used in turbine-powered aircraft, and referred to as full authority digital electronic control, these sophisticated control systems are increasingly being used in piston powered aircraft. In a spark-ignition reciprocating engine, the FADEC uses speed, temperature, and pressure sensors to monitor the status of each cylinder. A digital computer calculates the ideal pulse for each injector and adjusts ignition timing as necessary to achieve optimal performance. In a compression-ignition engine, the FADEC operates similarly and performs all of the same functions, excluding ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Combustion](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-combustion/): During normal combustion, the fuel-air mixture burns in a very controlled and predictable manner. In a spark ignition engine, the process occurs in a fraction of a second. The mixture actually begins to burn at the point where it is ignited by the spark plugs. It then burns away from the plugs until it is completely consumed. This type of combustion causes a smooth build-up of temperature and pressure and ensures that the expanding gases deliver the maximum force to the piston at exactly the right time in the power stroke. [Figure] Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel-air ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Starting System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-starting-system/): Most small aircraft use a direct-cranking electric starter system. This system consists of a source of electricity, wiring, switches, and solenoids to operate the starter and a starter motor. Most aircraft have starters that automatically engage and disengage when operated, but some older aircraft have starters that are mechanically engaged by a lever actuated by the pilot. The starter engages the aircraft flywheel, rotating the engine at a speed that allows the engine to start and maintain operation. Electrical power for starting is usually supplied by an onboard battery, but can also be supplied by external power through an external power ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-exhaust-systems/): Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for the cabin, and defrost the windscreen. An exhaust system has exhaust piping attached to the cylinders, as well as a muffler and a muffler shroud. The exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve and then through the exhaust pipe system to the atmosphere. For cabin heat, outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud around the muffler. The muffler is heated by the exiting exhaust gases and, in turn, heats the air around the muffler. This heated air ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Cooling Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-cooling-systems/): The burning fuel within the cylinders produces intense heat, most of which is expelled through the exhaust system. Much of the remaining heat, however, must be removed, or at least dissipated, to prevent the engine from overheating. Otherwise, the extremely high engine temperatures can lead to loss of power, excessive oil consumption, detonation, and serious engine damage. While the oil system is vital to the internal cooling of the engine, an additional method of cooling is necessary for the engine’s external surface. Most small aircraft are air cooled, although some are liquid cooled. Air cooling is accomplished by air flowing into ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Oil Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-oil-systems/): The engine oil system performs several important functions: Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts Cooling of the engine by reducing friction Removing heat from the cylinders Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons Carrying away contaminants Reciprocating engines use either a wet-sump or a dry-sump oil system. In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump that is an integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump system, the oil is contained in a separate tank and circulated through the engine by pumps. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Wet-sump oil system The main component of a wet-sump system ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Ignition System](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-ignition-system/): In a spark ignition engine, the ignition system provides a spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders and is made up of magnetos, spark plugs, high-tension leads, and an ignition switch. [Figure] Ignition system components A magneto uses a permanent magnet to generate an electrical current completely independent of the aircraft’s electrical system. The magneto generates sufficiently high voltage to jump a spark across the spark plug gap in each cylinder. The system begins to fire when the starter is engaged and the crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to operate whenever the crankshaft is rotating. Most standard certificated ... Read more
- [Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers](https://flight-study.com/superchargers-and-turbosuperchargers/): To increase an engine’s horsepower, manufacturers have developed forced induction systems called supercharger and turbosupercharger systems. They both compress the intake air to increase its density. The key difference lies in the power supply. A supercharger relies on an engine-driven air pump or compressor, while a turbocharger gets its power from the exhaust stream that runs through a turbine, which in turn spins the compressor. Aircraft with these systems have a manifold pressure gauge, which displays MAP within the engine’s intake manifold. On a standard day at sea level with the engine shut down, the manifold pressure gauge indicates the ambient ... Read more
- [Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Fuel Injection Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-reciprocating-engine-fuel-injection-systems/): In a fuel injection system, the fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve. The air intake for the fuel injection system is similar to that used in a carburetor system, with an alternate air source located within the engine cowling. This source is used if the external air source is obstructed. The alternate air source is usually operated automatically, with a backup manual system that can be used if the automatic feature malfunctions. A fuel injection system usually incorporates six basic components: an engine-driven fuel pump, a fuel-air control unit, a fuel manifold (fuel ... Read more
- [Aircraft Engine Induction and Carburetor Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-engine-induction-and-carburetor-systems/): Induction Systems The induction system brings in air from the outside, mixes it with fuel, and delivers the fuel-air mixture to the cylinder where combustion occurs. Outside air enters the induction system through an intake port on the front of the engine cowling. This port normally contains an air filter that inhibits the entry of dust and other foreign objects. Since the filter may occasionally become clogged, an alternate source of air must be available. Usually, the alternate air comes from inside the engine cowling, where it bypasses a clogged air filter. Some alternate air sources function automatically, while others operate ... Read more
- [Propeller](https://flight-study.com/propeller/): The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic principles that apply to any airfoil. It provides the necessary thrust to pull, or in some cases push, the aircraft through the air. The engine power is used to rotate the propeller, which in turn generates thrust very similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift. The amount of thrust produced depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of attack (AOA) of the propeller blade, and the revolutions per minute (rpm) of the engine. The propeller itself is twisted so the blade angle ... Read more
- [Reciprocating Engines](https://flight-study.com/reciprocating-engines/): An aircraft engine, or powerplant, produces thrust to propel an aircraft. Reciprocating engines and turboprop engines work in combination with a propeller to produce thrust. Turbojet and turbofan engines produce thrust by increasing the velocity of air flowing through the engine. All of these powerplants also drive the various systems that support the operation of an aircraft. Most small aircraft are designed with reciprocating engines. The name is derived from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating, movement of the pistons that produces the mechanical energy necessary to accomplish work. Driven by a revitalization of the general aviation (GA) industry and advances in both ... Read more
- [Aircraft Autopilot Systems and Functions](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-autopilot-systems-and-functions/): Autopilot systems help pilots control aircraft attitude, heading, altitude, and navigation during flight. Understanding how autopilot systems operate improves workload management, situational awareness, and flight safety. An autopilot is an automatic flight control system that maintains an aircraft in level flight or on a selected course. It may be controlled directly by the pilot or coupled to a radio or GPS navigation signal. Autopilot reduces the physical and mental demands on a pilot and enhances flight safety. Common autopilot functions include heading hold and altitude hold. The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos connected to ... Read more
- [Aircraft Load Factors and Maneuvering Limits](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-load-factors-and-maneuvering-limits/): Load factor is a critical concept in aviation that describes the forces acting on an aircraft during maneuvers. Understanding how load factor affects performance, stall speed, and structural limits is essential for safe flight operations. In aerodynamics, the maximum load factor (at a given bank angle) is a proportion between lift and weight and has a trigonometric relationship. The load factor is measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity), a unit of force equal to the force exerted by gravity on a body at rest and indicates the force to which a body is subjected when it is accelerated. Any force applied ... Read more
- [AOA Indicators and Stall Margin Awareness](https://flight-study.com/aoa-indicators-and-stall-margin-awareness/): Angle of attack (AOA) indicators provide pilots with real-time information about wing performance and stall margin. Understanding how these systems work can significantly improve flight safety and help prevent loss of control accidents. The FAA along with the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC) is promoting AOA indicators as one of the many safety initiatives aimed at reducing the general aviation accident rate. AOA indicators specifically target loss of control (LOC) accidents. Loss of control is the number one root cause of fatalities in both general aviation and commercial aviation. More than 25 percent of general aviation fatal accidents occur during ... Read more
- [Wing Planform and Design Characteristics](https://flight-study.com/wing-planform-and-design-characteristics/): Wing planform refers to the shape of a wing as viewed from above and plays a major role in aircraft performance. Understanding factors such as aspect ratio, taper, and sweepback helps explain how wing design influences lift, drag, and flight characteristics. Understanding the effects of different wing planforms is important when learning about wing performance and aircraft flight characteristics. A planform is the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above and influences airflow in three dimensions. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are factors in planform design that are very important to the overall aerodynamic characteristic of a wing. ... Read more
- [Wingtip Vortices and Wake Turbulence](https://flight-study.com/wingtip-vortices-and-wake-turbulence/): Wingtip vortices are rotating air currents formed at the tips of a wing as lift is produced. These vortices are a direct result of pressure differences above and below the airfoil and are closely associated with induced drag. Understanding how wingtip vortices form, how they affect aircraft performance, and how they create wake turbulence is essential for safe flight operations. Formation of Vortices The action of the airfoil that gives an aircraft lift also causes induced drag. When an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a pressure differential exists between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The pressure ... Read more
- [Airfoil Design and Pressure Distribution](https://flight-study.com/airfoil-design-and-pressure-distribution/): Airfoil design determines how efficiently a wing produces lift and controls airflow. Understanding airfoil shape, pressure distribution, and wingtip vortices is essential in the study of aerodynamics and aircraft performance. Airfoil Design An airfoil is a shape designed to produce aerodynamic forces as air flows around it. Air acts in various ways when subjected to different pressures and velocities; but this discussion is confined to the parts of an aircraft that a pilot is most concerned with in flight—namely, the airfoils designed to produce lift. By looking at a typical airfoil profile, such as the cross section of a wing, one ... Read more
- [ADM Frameworks: 5P, 3P, and DECIDE Models](https://flight-study.com/adm-frameworks-5p-3p-and-decide-models/): An understanding of the decision-making process provides the pilot with a foundation for developing ADM and SRM skills. While some situations, such as engine failure, require an immediate pilot response using established procedures, there is usually time during a flight to analyze any changes that occur, gather information, and assess risks before reaching a decision. Risk management and risk intervention is much more than the simple definitions of the terms might suggest. Risk management and risk intervention are decision-making processes designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action. These processes involve the ... Read more
- [History of Aeronautical Decision-Making](https://flight-study.com/history-of-aeronautical-decision-making/): The development of aeronautical decision-making (ADM) training has significantly improved aviation safety by helping pilots recognize risks, reduce human error, and make safer operational decisions. For decades, the importance of good pilot judgment, or aeronautical decision-making (ADM), has been recognized as critical to the safe operation of aircraft and accident prevention. The airline industry, motivated by the need to reduce accidents caused by human factors, developed the first training programs focused on improving ADM. Crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews is focused on the effective use of all available resources: human resources, hardware, and information to support ADM, facilitate ... Read more
- [Knowledge and Skill Tests for Pilot Certification](https://flight-study.com/knowledge-and-skill-tests-for-pilot-certification/): Knowledge Tests The knowledge test is the computer portion of the tests taken to obtain pilot certification. The test contains questions of the objective, multiple-choice type. This testing method conserves the applicant’s time, eliminates any element of individual judgment in determining grades, and saves time in scoring. FAA Airman Knowledge Test Guides for every type of pilot certificate address most questions you may have regarding the knowledge test process. The guides are available on-line (free of charge) at FAA website. When To Take the Knowledge Test The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant and more likely to result in ... Read more
- [Becoming a Pilot](https://flight-study.com/becoming-a-pilot/): The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on the type of certificate sought. It should include the ground and flight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills required to safely and efficiently function as a certificated pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The specific knowledge and skill areas for each category and class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR part 61. Eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical requirements can be found in 14 CFR part 61. Recreational Pilot, see subpart D Private Pilot, see subpart E Sport Pilot, see subpart J The knowledge-based portion ... Read more
- [The Student Pilot](https://flight-study.com/the-student-pilot/): The first step in becoming a pilot is to select a type of aircraft. FAA rules for obtaining a pilot’s certificate differ depending on the type of aircraft flown. Individuals can choose among airplanes, gyroplanes, weight-shift, helicopters, powered parachutes, gliders, balloons, or airships. A pilot does not need a certificate to fly ultralight vehicles. Basic Requirements A student pilot is one who is being trained by an instructor pilot for his or her first full certificate, and is permitted to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances. Before a student pilot may be endorsed to fly solo, that student must have ... Read more
- [Selecting a Flight School](https://flight-study.com/selecting-a-flight-school/): Selecting a flight school is an important consideration in the flight training process. FAA-approved training centers, FAA-approved pilot schools, noncertificated flying schools, and independent flight instructors conduct flight training in the United States. All flight training is conducted under the auspices of the FAA following the regulations outlined in 14 CFR parts 142, 141, or 61. Training centers, also referred to as flight academies, operate under 14 CFR part 142 and are certificated by the FAA. Application for certification is voluntary and the training center must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, facilities, and must teach a curriculum approved by ... Read more
- [Pilot Certifications](https://flight-study.com/pilot-certifications/): The type of intended flying influences what type of pilot’s certificate is required. Eligibility, training, experience, and testing requirements differ depending on the type of certificates sought. [Figure 1] Each type of pilot’s certificate has privileges and limitations that are inherent within the certificate itself. However, other privileges and limitations may be applicable based on the aircraft type, operation being conducted, and the type of certificate. For example, a certain certificate may have privileges and limitations under 14 CFR part 61 and part 91. Figure 1. Front side (top) and back side (bottom) of an airman certificate issued by the FAA ... Read more
- [Aircraft Classifications and Ultralight Vehicles](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-classifications-and-ultralight-vehicles/): The FAA uses various ways to classify or group machines operated or flown in the air. The most general grouping uses the term aircraft. This term is in 14 CFR 1.1 and means a device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air. Ultralight vehicle is another general term the FAA uses. This term is defined in 14 CFR 103. As the term implies, powered ultralight vehicles must weigh less than 254 pounds empty weight and unpowered ultralight vehicles must weigh less than 155 pounds. Rules for ultralight vehicles are significantly different from rules for aircraft; ... Read more
- [The Role of the FAA](https://flight-study.com/the-role-of-the-faa/): The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) The FAA is empowered by regulations to promote aviation safety and establish safety standards for civil aviation. The FAA achieves these objectives under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which is the codification of the general and permanent rules published by the executive departments and agencies of the United States Government. The regulations are divided into 50 different codes, called Titles, that represent broad areas subject to Federal regulation. FAA regulations are listed under Title 14, “Aeronautics and Space,” which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation from how to earn a pilot’s certificate to maintenance ... Read more
- [History of the Federal Aviation Administration](https://flight-study.com/history-of-the-federal-aviation-administration/): During the early years of manned flight, aviation was a free for all because no government body was in place to establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards. Individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Most of the early flights were conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were small, many people doubted their commercial value. One group of individuals believed otherwise and they became the genesis for modern airline travel. P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg, approached Tom Benoist ... Read more
- [History of Flight](https://flight-study.com/history-of-flight/): From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of birds, and longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing system, and devices not unlike wing flaps, variable-camber and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to fly. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in attempts to fly like birds. The ... Read more
- [Automation Management for Helicopter Pilots](https://flight-study.com/automation-management-for-helicopter-pilots/): Automation management is the control and navigation of an aircraft by means of the automated systems installed in the aircraft. One of the most important concepts of automation management is simply knowing when to use it and when not to use it. Ideally, a pilot first learns to perform practical test standard (PTS) maneuvers and procedures in the aircraft manually, or hand flying. After successfully demonstrating proficiency in the basic maneuvers, the pilot is then introduced to the available automation and/or the autopilot. Obviously, in some aircraft, not all automated systems may be disengaged for basic flight. The purpose of basic ... Read more
- [Helicopter Pilot Self-Assessment](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-pilot-self-assessment/): The PIC of an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final authority for the operation of that aircraft. The list of PIC responsibilities is long, and nothing should be overlooked. To exercise those responsibilities effectively and make effective decisions regarding the outcome of a flight, a pilot must have an understanding of personal limitations. Pilot performance from planning the flight to execution of the flight is affected by many factors, such as health, experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude. Exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the controls of an aircraft. Often, pilots thoroughly check their aircraft to determine ... Read more
- [Helicopter Night VFR Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-night-vfr-operations/): While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety in night VFR operations, lighting conditions also have a profound effect on safety. Even in conditions in which visibility and ceiling are determined to be visual meteorological conditions, the ability to discern unlit or low contrast objects and terrain at night may be compromised. The ability to discern these objects and terrain is referred to as the “seeing condition,” and is related to the amount of natural and man-made lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and texture of surface terrain and obstruction features. In order to conduct operations safely, seeing conditions must be accounted ... Read more
- [Helicopter Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-emergency-equipment-and-survival-gear/): Both Canada and Alaska require pilots to carry survival gear. Always carry survival gear when flying over rugged and desolate terrain. The items suggested in Figure are both weather and terrain dependent. The pilot also needs to consider how much storage space the helicopter has and how the equipment being carried affects the overall weight and balance of the helicopter. Emergency equipment and survival gear RELATED POSTS Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards Autorotation Vortex Ring State Retreating Blade Stall System Malfunctions Multiengine Emergency Operations Lost Procedures VFR Flight into Instrument Meteorological Conditions
- [Helicopter Lost Procedures](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-lost-procedures/): Pilots become lost while flying for a variety of reasons, such as disorientation, flying over unfamiliar territory, or visibility that is low enough to render familiar terrain unfamiliar. When a pilot becomes lost, the first order of business is to fly the aircraft; the second is to implement lost procedures. Keep in mind that the pilot workload will be high, and increased concentration will be necessary. If lost, always remember to look for the practically invisible hazards, such as wires, by searching for their support structures, such as poles or towers, which are almost always near roads. If lost, follow common ... Read more
- [Helicopter Multiengine Emergency Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-multiengine-emergency-operations/): Single-Engine Failure When one engine has failed, the helicopter can often maintain altitude and airspeed until a suitable landing site can be selected. Whether or not this is possible becomes a function of such combined variables as aircraft weight, density altitude, height above ground, airspeed, phase of flight, single-engine capability, and environmental response time and control technique may be additional factors. Caution must be exercised to correctly identify the malfunctioning engine since there is no telltale yawing as occurs in most multiengine airplanes. Shutting down the wrong engine could be disastrous. Even when flying multiengine powered helicopters, rotor rpm must be ... Read more
- [Helicopter Ground Resonance](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-ground-resonance/): Helicopters with articulating rotors (usually designs with three or more main rotor blades) are subject to ground resonance, a destructive vibration phenomenon that occurs at certain rotor speeds when the helicopter is on the ground. Ground resonance is a mechanical design issue that results from the helicopter’s airframe having a natural frequency that can be intensified by an out-of-balance rotor. The unbalanced rotor disk vibrates at the same frequency (or multiple thereof) of the airframe’s resonant frequency, and the harmonic oscillation increases because the engine is adding power to the system, increasing the magnitude (amplitude) of the vibrations until the structure ... Read more
- [Helicopter Retreating Blade Stall](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-retreating-blade-stall/): In forward flight, the relative airflow through the main rotor disk is different on the advancing and retreating side. The relative airflow over the advancing side is higher due to the forward speed of the helicopter, while the relative airflow on the retreating side is lower. This dissymmetry of lift increases as forward speed increases. To generate the same amount of lift across the rotor disk, the advancing blade flaps up while the retreating blade flaps down. This causes the AOA to decrease on the advancing blade, which reduces lift, and increase on the retreating blade, which increases lift. At some ... Read more
- [Helicopter Autorotation](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-autorotation/): In a helicopter, an autorotative descent is a power-off maneuver in which the engine is disengaged from the main rotor disk and the rotor blades are driven solely by the upward flow of air through the rotor. [Figure 1] In other words, the engine is no longer supplying power to the main rotor. The most common reason for an autorotation is failure of the engine or drive line, but autorotation may also be performed in the event of a complete tail rotor failure, since there is virtually no torque produced in an autorotation. In both cases, maintenance has often been a ... Read more
- [Helicopter Pinnacle and Ridgeline Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-pinnacle-and-ridgeline-operations/): A pinnacle is an area from which the surface drops away steeply on all sides. A ridgeline is a long area from which the surface drops away steeply on one or two sides, such as a bluff or precipice. The absence of obstacles does not necessarily decrease the difficulty of pinnacle or ridgeline operations. Updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence, together with unsuitable terrain in which to make a forced landing, may still present extreme hazards. Approach and Landing If there is a need to climb to a pinnacle or ridgeline, do it on the upwind side, when practicable, to take advantage of ... Read more
- [Helicopter Confined Area Operations](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-confined-area-operations/): A confined area is an area where the flight of the helicopter is limited in some direction by terrain or the presence of obstructions, natural or manmade. For example, a clearing in the woods, a city street, a road, a building roof, etc., can each be regarded as a confined area. The helicopter pilot has added responsibilities when conducting operations from a confined area that airplanes pilots do not. He or she assumes the additional roles of the surveyor, engineer, and manager when selecting an area to conduct operations. While airplane pilots generally operate from known pre-surveyed and improved landing areas, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Steep Approach](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-steep-approach/): A steep approach is used primarily when there are obstacles in the approach path that are too high to allow a normal approach. A steep approach permits entry into most confined areas and is sometimes used to avoid areas of turbulence around a pinnacle. An approach angle of approximately 13° to 15° is considered a steep approach. [Figure 1] Caution must be exercised to avoid the parameters for settling with power (20–100 percent of available power applied, airspeed of less than 10 knots, and a rate of descent greater than 300 fpm). For additional information on vortex ring state (formerly referenced ... Read more
- [Helicopter Rapid Deceleration and Quick Stop](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-rapid-deceleration-and-quick-stop/): This maneuver is used to decelerate from forward flight to a hover. It is often used to abort takeoffs, to stop if something blocks the helicopter flightpath, or simply to terminate an air taxi maneuver, as mentioned in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). A quick stop is usually practiced on a runway, taxiway, or over a large grassy area away from other traffic or obstacles. Technique The maneuver requires a high degree of coordination of all controls. It is practiced at an altitude that permits a safe clearance between the tail rotor and the surface throughout the maneuver, especially at the ... Read more
- [Helicopter Running/Rolling Takeoff](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-running-rolling-takeoff/): A running takeoff in helicopter with fixed landing gear, such as skids, skis or floats, or a rolling takeoff in a wheeled helicopter is sometimes used when conditions of load and/or density altitude prevent a sustained hover at normal hovering altitude. For wheeled helicopters, a rolling takeoff is sometimes used to minimize the downwash created during a takeoff from a hover. Avoid a running/ rolling maneuver if there is not sufficient power to hover, at least momentarily. If the helicopter cannot be hovered, its performance is unpredictable. If the helicopter cannot be raised off the surface at all, sufficient power might ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Level-Off and Cruise](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-level-off-and-cruise/): Upon leveling off at cruising altitude, the pilot should allow the airplane to accelerate at climb power until cruising airspeed is achieved, and then cruise power and rpm should be set. To extract the maximum cruise performance from any airplane, the power setting tables provided by the manufacturer should be closely followed. If the cylinder head and oil temperatures are within their normal ranges, the cowl flaps may be closed. When the engine temperatures have stabilized, the mixtures may be leaned per AFM/POH recommendations. The remainder of the Cruise checklist should be completed by this point. Fuel management in multiengine airplanes ... Read more
- [Multiengine Airplane Ground Operation](https://flight-study.com/multiengine-airplane-ground-operation/): Good habits learned with single-engine airplanes are directly applicable to multiengine airplanes for preflight and engine start. Upon placing the airplane in motion to taxi, the new multiengine pilot notices several differences, however. The most obvious is the increased wingspan and the need for even greater vigilance while taxiing in close quarters. Ground handling may seem somewhat ponderous and the multiengine airplane is not as nimble as the typical two- or four-place single-engine airplane. As always, use care not to ride the brakes by keeping engine power to a minimum. One ground handling advantage of the multiengine airplane over single-engine airplanes ... Read more
- [Helicopter Weight and Balance](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-weight-and-balance/): It is vital to comply with weight and balance limits established for helicopters. Operating above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of the helicopter and adversely affects performance. Balance is also critical because, on some fully loaded helicopters, center of gravity (CG) deviations as small as three inches can dramatically change a helicopter’s handling characteristics. Operating a helicopter that is not within the weight and balance limitations is unsafe. Refer Aircraft Weight and Balance section for more detailed information. Weight When determining if a helicopter is within the weight limits, consider the weight of the basic helicopter, crew, passengers, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Airframe and Fuselage](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-airframe-and-fuselage/): Airframe The airframe, or fundamental structure, of a helicopter can be made of either metal, wood, or composite materials, or some combination of the two. Typically, a composite component consists of many layers of fiber-impregnated resins, bonded to form a smooth panel. Tubular and sheet metal substructures are usually made of aluminum, though stainless steel or titanium are sometimes used in areas subject to higher stress or heat. Airframe design encompasses engineering, aerodynamics, materials technology, and manufacturing methods to achieve favorable balances of performance, reliability, and cost. [Figure] The major components of a helicopter are the airframe, fuselage, landing gear, powerplant, ... Read more
- [Helicopter Major Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-major-flight-controls/): There are three major controls in a helicopter that the pilot must use during flight. They are the collective pitch control, the cyclic pitch control, and the antitorque pedals or tail rotor control. In addition to these major controls, the pilot must also use the throttle control, which is usually mounted directly to the collective pitch control in order to fly the helicopter. In this post the control systems described are not limited to the single main rotor type helicopter but are employed in one form or another in most helicopter configurations. All examples in this post refer to a counterclockwise ... Read more
- [Airplane Ground Operations](https://flight-study.com/airplane-ground-operations/): All pilots must ensure that they place a strong emphasis on ground operations as this is where safe flight begins and ends. At no time should a pilot hastily consider ground operations without proper and effective thoroughness. This phase of flight provides the first opportunity for a pilot to safely assess the various factors of flight operations including the regulatory requirements, an evaluation of the airplane’s condition, and the pilot’s readiness for their pilot in command (PIC) responsibilities. Flying an airplane presents many new responsibilities that are not required for other forms of transportation. Focus is often overly placed on the ... Read more
- [Flight Instruments for IFR Operations](https://flight-study.com/flight-instruments-for-ifr-operations/): Aircraft became a practical means of transportation when accurate flight instruments freed the pilot from the necessity of maintaining visual contact with the ground. These instruments are crucial to conducting safe operations, and a solid understanding of their inner workings is essential for every pilot. Beyond the basic VFR requirements (airspeed indicator, altimeter, and magnetic direction indicator), IFR operations demand a suite of gyroscopic and reference instruments to maintain attitude and direction in IMC. These include the turn coordinator, sensitive altimeter, clock, artificial horizon, and directional gyro. This chapter explores the systems required by 14 CFR Part 91, organized into pitot-static, ... Read more
- [Primary Flight Display and Glass Cockpit](https://flight-study.com/primary-flight-display-and-glass-cockpit/): Modern aviation has rapidly transitioned from traditional analog instruments to highly advanced glass cockpit systems that significantly enhance pilot situational awareness and flight safety. At the center of this transformation is the Primary Flight Display (PFD), which integrates critical flight data such as attitude, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, and navigation information into a single, easy-to-interpret screen. Supporting the PFD, the Multi-Function Display (MFD) provides additional data including moving maps, weather, terrain, and approach charts. Advanced technologies such as Synthetic Vision and Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B) further improve IFR operations by offering real-time traffic, terrain awareness, and precise positioning using GPS. Understanding ... Read more
- [Flight Management System for IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/flight-management-system-for-ifr-flight/): In the mid-1970s, visionaries in the avionics industry such as Hubert Naimer of Universal, and followed by others such as Ed King, Jr., were looking to advance the technology of aircraft navigation. As early as 1976, Naimer had a vision of a “Master Navigation System” that would accept inputs from a variety of different types of sensors on an aircraft and automatically provide guidance throughout all phases of flight. At that time aircraft navigated over relatively short distances with radio systems, principally VOR or ADF. For long-range flight inertial navigation systems (INS), Omega, Doppler, and Loran were in common use. Short-range ... Read more
- [Gyroscopic Instruments in Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/gyroscopic-instruments-in-instrument-flying/): Gyroscopic instruments are essential components of an aircraft’s flight instrument system, providing pilots with reliable attitude, heading, and turn information when flying without outside visual references, such as during instrument flight conditions (IFR). These instruments operate using the fundamental properties of a spinning gyroscope, primarily rigidity in space and precession. By maintaining orientation independent of aircraft motion, gyroscopic systems enable pilots to accurately control and navigate the aircraft using only flight instruments. Attitude Indicators The first attitude instrument (AI) was originally referred to as an artificial horizon, later as a gyro horizon; now it is more properly called an attitude indicator. ... Read more
- [Aerodynamic Factors in IFR](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamic-factors-in-ifr/): Several factors affect aircraft performance including the atmosphere, aerodynamics, and aircraft icing. Pilots need an understanding of these factors for a sound basis for prediction of aircraft response to control inputs, especially with regard to instrument approaches, while holding, and when operating at reduced airspeed in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Although these factors are important to the pilot flying visual flight rules (VFR), they must be even more thoroughly understood by the pilot operating under instrument flight rules (IFR). Instrument pilots rely strictly on instrument indications to precisely control the aircraft; therefore, they must have a solid understanding of basic aerodynamic ... Read more
- [Aircraft Icing in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-icing-in-instrument-flight/): Icing is one of the most serious weather hazards encountered in instrument flight. Even a thin accumulation of ice can drastically alter an aircraft’s aerodynamic performance, increase drag, reduce lift, raise stall speed, and affect controllability. Because instrument conditions often conceal visual cues of ice buildup, pilots must understand how icing forms, how it impacts aircraft systems and stability, and how to recognize and respond to it promptly to maintain safety. Icing One of the greatest hazards to flight is aircraft icing. The instrument pilot must be aware of the conditions conducive to aircraft icing. These conditions include the types of ... Read more
- [Climbs and Turns in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/climbs-and-turns-in-instrument-flight/): Instrument flight requires precise control of the aircraft in three dimensions without relying on external visual references. Maneuvers such as climbs, turns, and acceleration must be executed using instruments alone, with careful attention to airspeed, pitch, power, and configuration. Understanding how thrust, lift, drag, and bank angle interact during these maneuvers is essential for maintaining safe flight paths, preventing unintentional altitude loss, and achieving accurate navigation under instrument conditions. Mastery of these principles ensures smooth and coordinated flight in both small and large airplanes while minimizing workload and maintaining safety margins. Climbs The ability for an aircraft to climb depends upon ... Read more
- [Trim in Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/trim-in-instrument-flying/): The term trim refers to using adjustable aerodynamic devices on an aircraft to balance control forces so that the pilot does not need to continuously apply pressure on the flight controls. Proper trimming reduces pilot workload and ensures smoother, more stable flight, which is especially important during instrument flight where attention must be focused on flight instruments rather than outside visual references. A common method of trimming is the use of trim tabs. A trim tab is a small, adjustable, hinged surface located on the trailing edge of primary control surfaces such as the elevator, ailerons, or rudder. When the trim ... Read more
- [Air Pressure, Density, and Altitude in IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/air-pressure-density-and-altitude-in-ifr-flight/): The atmosphere is the blanket of gases surrounding the Earth and is the operating medium for all aircraft. Dry air is composed primarily of nitrogen (about 78 percent) and oxygen (about 21 percent), with the remaining one percent consisting of argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases. Although it appears light, air possesses measurable mass and pressure—at sea level, a column of air one square inch in area weighs approximately 14.7 pounds. Nearly half of the atmosphere’s total mass is contained below 18,000 feet, while the rest gradually thins over hundreds of miles above the surface. Because aircraft instruments and performance depend ... Read more
- [Aerodynamic Forces and Performance for Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamic-forces-and-performance-for-instrument-flight/): Instrument flying demands a deeper understanding of aerodynamic principles than visual flight because pilots must rely on instruments rather than outside visual cues to control the aircraft. Small changes in attitude or power can produce significant performance differences, especially when operating in clouds, turbulence, or reduced visibility. A solid grasp of basic aerodynamic relationships helps the instrument pilot correctly interpret instrument indications and anticipate how the aircraft will respond. To manage the aircraft safely and precisely, the pilot must understand how airflow interacts with the wings and how that interaction produces lift and drag. Concepts such as relative wind, angle of ... Read more
- [Human Factors and Sensory Illusions in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/human-factors-and-sensory-illusions-in-instrument-flight/): Human factors is a broad field that examines the interaction between people, machines, and the environment for the purpose of improving performance and reducing errors. As aircraft became more reliable and less prone to mechanical failure, the percentage of accidents related to human factors increased. Some aspect of human factors now accounts for over 80 percent of all accidents. Pilots, who have a good understanding of human factors, are better equipped to plan and execute a safe and uneventful flight. Flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) can result in sensations that are misleading to the body’s sensory system. A safe pilot ... Read more
- [IFR Flight Control Sequence](https://flight-study.com/ifr-flight-control-sequence/): The IFR system is flexible and accommodating if pilots do their homework, have as many frequencies as possible written down before they are needed, and have an alternate in mind if the flight cannot be completed as planned. Pilots should familiarize themselves with all the facilities and services available along the planned route of flight. [Figure] Always know where the nearest VFR conditions can be found, and be prepared to head in that direction if the situation deteriorates. A typical IFR flight, with departure and arrival at airports with control towers, would use the ATC facilities and services in the following ... Read more
- [ATC Approach Control Facility and Approach Control Advances](https://flight-study.com/atc-approach-control-facility-and-approach-control-advances/): Approach Control Facility An approach control facility is a terminal ATC facility that provides approach control service in the terminal area. Services are provided for arriving and departing VFR and IFR aircraft and, on occasion, en route aircraft. In addition, for airports with parallel runways with ILS or LDA approaches, the approach control facility provides monitoring of the approaches. Approach Control Advances Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Over the past few years, a new technology has been installed at airports that permits a decreased separation distance between parallel runways. The system is called a Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) and is comprised of ... Read more
- [ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance](https://flight-study.com/atc-inflight-weather-avoidance-assistance/): ATC Radar Weather Displays ATC radar systems are able to display areas of precipitation by sending out a beam of radio energy that is reflected back to the radar antenna when it strikes an object or moisture, which may be in the form of rain drops, hail, or snow. The larger the object, or the denser its reflective surface, the stronger the return. Radar weather processors indicate the intensity of reflective returns in terms of decibels with respect to the radar reflectively factor (dBZ). ATC systems cannot detect the presence or absence of clouds. ATC radar systems can often determine the ... Read more
- [Terminal Arrival Area](https://flight-study.com/terminal-arrival-area/): The design objective of the TAA procedure is to provide a transition method for arriving aircraft with GPS/RNAV equipment. TAAs also eliminate or reduce the need for feeder routes, departure extensions, and procedure turns or course reversal. The TAA is controlled airspace established in conjunction with the standard or modified RNAVapproach configurations. The standard TAA has three areas: straight-in, left base, and right base. The arc boundaries of the three areas of the TAA are published portions of the approach and allow aircraft to transition from the en route structure direct to the nearest IAF. When crossing the boundary of each ... Read more
- [Instrument Approach Procedure Charts](https://flight-study.com/instrument-approach-procedure-charts/): The instrument approach procedure (IAP) chart provides the method to descend and land safely in low visibility conditions. The FAA establishes an IAP after thorough analyses of obstructions, terrain features, and navigational facilities. Maneuvers, including altitude changes, course corrections, and other limitations, are prescribed in the IAP. The approach charts reflect the criteria associated with the United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Approach Procedures (TERPs), which prescribes standardized methods for use in designing instrument flight procedures. In addition to the AeroNav Products, other governmental and corporate entities produce approach procedures. The U.S. Military IAPs are established and published by the Department ... Read more
- [Personal Minimums Checklist](https://flight-study.com/personal-minimums-checklist/): Pilot:________________________________ Date Revised:_________________________ Reviewed with:________________________, (if applicable) Your Personal Minimums Checklist— Is an easy-to-use, personal tool tailored to your level of skill, knowledge, and ability. Helps you control and manage risk by identifying even subtle risk factors. Allows you to fly with less stress and less risk. Practice “Conservatism Without Guilt.” Each item provides you with either a space to complete a personal minimum or a checklist item to think about. Spend some quiet time completing each blank and consider other items that apply to your personal minimums. Give yourself permission to choose higher minimums than those specified in the regulations, ... Read more
- [Certificates, Ratings, and Endorsements](https://flight-study.com/certificates-ratings-and-endorsements/): Flight Instructor Endorsements The authority and responsibility for flight instructors to endorse initial learner certificates, logbooks for solo and solo cross-country, additional aircraft ratings, and flight privileges are outlined in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61. In addition, Advisory Circular (AC) 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors, provides guidance for pilots, flight instructors, ground instructors, and examiners on the certification standards, knowledge test procedures, and other requirements of 14 CFR part 61. By utilizing AC 61-65, the flight instructor does not omit any required endorsement for the rating sought, which ensures standardization. It ... Read more
- [Developing a Test Item Bank](https://flight-study.com/developing-a-test-item-bank/): Developing a bank of test questions is difficult and time consuming. This task demands a mastery of the subject, an ability to write clearly, and an ability to visualize realistic situations for use in developing problems. Because it is so difficult to develop good test items, many instructors rely on commercially-prepared test materials. However, there are a few instructors who write their own questions and maintain them in a database or a system of folders. [Figure 1] Figure 1. A bank of test items makes it easier to construct new tests Written Test Items Supply Type Supply type test items ask ... Read more
- [Managing Risk during Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/managing-risk-during-flight-instruction/): Instructors know the need to manage risk during flight instruction. The risk management techniques are the same as taught to learners, however, there are a few hazards that are unique to flight instruction. The resulting risk can be identified, assessed, and mitigated. For example: Ask the learner to fly specific maneuvers after giving appropriate training. Choose practice locations that provide safe options. Perform maneuvers with sufficient altitude. Stay alert for the unexpected either from the learner or external elements. Be prepared to take over the control of the aircraft. In flight, instructors can manage risk by constantly being aware of potential ... Read more
- [Risk Management Training for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/risk-management-training-for-pilots/): Instructors should teach risk management using a building block approach. This method will be effective with both new pilots as well as existing pilots who have not previously been exposed to formal risk management training. Risk Management Training through the Private Pilot Level A new learner’s exposure to risk management should begin before the first flight and become part of a routine that continues throughout initial training. Instructors should emphasize both practical risk management techniques and skills needed to comply with the Airman Certification Standards (ACS). Pre-Solo Instructor-led and guided risk management training should occur during pre-solo instruction. Risk management should ... Read more
- [Poor Risk Management and Accident Causality](https://flight-study.com/poor-risk-management-and-accident-causality/): Traditional Accident Investigation Taxonomy Aviation accidents are investigated by both the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The role of the NTSB is to determine the probable cause of accidents and make recommendations, while the FAA seeks to determine if the accident revealed deficiencies in pilot training, aircraft certification, air traffic control or another area of FAA responsibility. The two government entities are often assisted by other interested parties, such as aircraft and/or engine manufacturers, in an effort to determine the facts. The NTSB role can be illustrated by looking at a typical accident report. [Figure ... Read more
- [Teaching Risk Management during Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/teaching-risk-management-during-flight-instruction/): Examination of accident data leads to the inevitable conclusion that many aviation accidents involve poor risk management decisions. Therefore, effective risk management is one of the most important skills a pilot needs to learn, understand, and practice as a habit. Since flight instructors continually deal with risk, they quickly become subject matter experts. Instructors know to increase the scope of risk management while teaching. For example, risk management during flight instruction includes a consideration of the dangers from maneuvers performed incorrectly by the learner close to the ground, in addition to all the other risks associated with the flight. Risk Management ... Read more
- [Assessment of Piloting Ability](https://flight-study.com/assessment-of-piloting-ability/): Assessment is an essential component of the teaching process and determines how, what, and how well a learner is learning. A well-designed assessment provides a learner with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build. An assessment should provide direction and guidance to raise the level of performance. Learners must understand the purpose of the assessment; otherwise, they will be unlikely to accept the evaluation offered and little improvement will result. There are many types of assessment but the flight instructor generally uses the review, collaborative assessment (LCG), written tests, and performance-based tests to ascertain knowledge or practical ... Read more
- [Integrated Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/integrated-flight-instruction-2/): Integrated flight instruction is flight instruction during which learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside visual references and by reference to flight instruments. For this type of instruction to be fully effective, the use of instrument references should begin the first time each new maneuver is introduced. No distinction in the pilot’s operation of the flight controls is permitted, regardless of whether outside references or instrument indications are used for the performance of the maneuver. When this training technique is used, instruction in the control of an aircraft by outside visual references is integrated with instruction in the ... Read more
- [Use of Distractions](https://flight-study.com/use-of-distractions/): National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) statistics reveal that most stall/spin accidents occurred when the pilot’s attention was diverted from the primary task of flying the aircraft. Sixty percent of stall/spin accidents occurred during takeoff and landing, and twenty percent were preceded by engine failure. Preoccupation inside or outside the flight deck while changing aircraft configuration or trim, maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing hazardous obstacles during takeoff and climb could create a potential stall/spin situation. The intentional practice of stalls and spins seldom resulted in an accident. The real danger was inadvertent stalls induced by distractions during routine flight situations. ... Read more
- [Sterile Flight Deck Rule](https://flight-study.com/sterile-flight-deck-rule/): Commonly known as the “sterile flight deck rule,” Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 121, section 121.542 requires airline flight crewmembers to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight. As defined in the regulation, critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000 feet except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting. A series of aircraft accidents caused by flight crews who were distracted from their flight duties during critical phases of the flight caused the FAA ... Read more
- [Positive Exchange of Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/positive-exchange-of-flight-controls/): Positive exchange of flight controls is an integral part of flight training. It is especially critical during the demonstration-performance method of flight instruction. Due to the importance of this subject, the following discussion provides guidance on the recommended procedure to use for the positive exchange of flight controls between pilots when operating an aircraft. Background Incident/accident statistics indicate a need to place additional emphasis on the exchange of control of an aircraft by pilots. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who had actual control of the aircraft, particularly between learners and flight instructors. Establishing ... Read more
- [Demonstration-Performance Training Delivery Method](https://flight-study.com/demonstration-performance-training-delivery-method/): The demonstration-performance training delivery method was discussed briefly in The Teaching Process, but the following in-depth discussion is geared to the flight instructor. This training method has been in use for a long time and is very effective in teaching kinesthetic skills so flight instructors find it valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers. The demonstration-performance method is divided into four phases: explanation, demonstration, learner performance with instructor supervision, and evaluation. [Figure 1] Figure 1. The demonstration-performance method of teaching has four essential phases Explanation Phase The flight instructor needs to be well prepared and highly organized to teach complex maneuvers and ... Read more
- [Integrating Instruction Techniques](https://flight-study.com/integrating-instruction-techniques/): A flight instructor uses many instructional techniques during ground instruction, when using simulation, and during hands-on aircraft training. Since flight training costs are high and new aircraft are more complex than in the past, the total training experience should provide a solid base of knowledge and maximize the learner’s time without sacrificing the quality of the end product. This section looks at teaching techniques in greater detail. Ground Instruction Ground instruction can be highly effective if it follows an overall plan designed to prepare the learner for flight. In Planning Instructional Activity, Training Syllabus, Figure 1 shows a ground lesson that ... Read more
- [Practical Flight Instructor Strategies](https://flight-study.com/practical-flight-instructor-strategies-2/): During all phases of flight training, instructors should remember that individuals learn through observing others; therefore, the instructor needs to model safe and professional behavior. The flight instructor should demonstrate good operational sense at all times: Before the flight—discuss safety and the importance of a proper preflight and use of the checklist. During flight—prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating. Instill importance of aircraft control, “see and avoid,” situational awareness, and workload management in the learner. During landing—conduct stabilized approaches, maintain desired airspeed on final, demonstrate good judgment for go-arounds, wake turbulence, traffic, and terrain avoidance. Correct faulty approaches and ... Read more
- [Techniques of Flight Instruction](https://flight-study.com/techniques-of-flight-instruction/): Flight instructor Daniel decides his learner, Mary, has gained enough confidence and experience that it is time for her to develop personal weather minimums. While researching the subject at the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website, he locates several sources that provide background information indicating that weather often poses some of the greatest risks to general aviation (GA) pilots, regardless of their experience level. He also finds charts and a lesson plan he can use. Daniel’s decision to help Mary develop personal weather minimums reflects a key component of the flight instructor’s job: providing the learner with the tools to ensure safety ... Read more
- [Professional Development](https://flight-study.com/professional-development/): Aviation is changing rapidly, and aviation instructors need to continue to develop their knowledge and skills in order to teach successfully in this environment. The aviation instructor is well respected by other technicians and pilots because instructors have trained extensively to be certificated. Flight instructors undergo comprehensive evaluations and a practical test to obtain a flight instructor certificate. 14 CFR part 147 requires all instructors teaching maintenance subjects to hold an FAA certificate as an aircraft maintenance technician. Successful, professional aviation instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their own qualifications and abilities and are constantly alert for ways to ... Read more
- [Evaluation of Learner Ability](https://flight-study.com/evaluation-of-learner-ability/): Evaluation of a learner’s ability is an important element of instruction. Used in this context, evaluation refers to judging a learner’s ability to perform a maneuver or procedure. Demonstrated Ability Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flight or maintenance instruction is based upon established standards of performance, suitably modified to apply to the learner’s experience and stage of development as a pilot or mechanic. The evaluation considers the learner’s mastery of the elements involved in the maneuver or procedure, rather than merely the overall performance. For example, qualification of learner pilots for solo and solo cross-country privileges depends upon demonstrations of performance. ... Read more
- [Aviation Instructor Professionalism](https://flight-study.com/aviation-instructor-professionalism/): The aviation instructor is the central figure in aviation training and bears responsibility for all phases of required training. The instructor, either pilot or aircraft maintenance technician, needs to be a professional. As professionals, aviation instructors strive to maintain the highest level of knowledge, training, and currency in the field of aviation. To achieve this goal, instructors need to commit themselves to continuous, lifelong learning and professional development through study, service, and membership in professional organizations such as the Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE), the National Association of Flight Instructors (NAFI) and Professional Aviation Mechanics Association (PAMA). Professionals build ... Read more
- [Flight Instructor Qualifications](https://flight-study.com/flight-instructor-qualifications/): A flight instructor needs to be thoroughly familiar with the functions, characteristics, and proper use of all flight instruments, avionics, and other aircraft systems being used for training. This is especially important due to the wide variety in global positioning systems (GPS) and glass panel displays. Each flight instructor should maintain familiarity with current pilot training techniques and certification requirements. Frequent review of new periodicals and technical publications, personal contacts with FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners (DPE), and participation in pilot and flight instructor clinics such as the FAASTeam/SAFE quarterly series of Flight Instructor Open Forums facilitate awareness of current ... Read more
- [Aviator's Model Code of Conduct and Safety Practices](https://flight-study.com/aviators-model-code-of-conduct-and-safety-practices/): Aviator’s Model Code of Conduct The Aviator’s Model Code of Conduct presents broad guidance and recommendations for General Aviation (GA) pilots to improve airmanship, flight safety, and to sustain and improve the GA community. The Code of Conduct presents a vision of excellence in GA aviation. Its principles both complement and supplement what is merely legal. The Code of Conduct is not a “standard” and is not intended to be implemented as such. The code of conduct consists of the following seven sections: General Responsibilities of Aviators Passengers and People on the Surface Training and Proficiency Security Environmental Issues Use of ... Read more
- [Flight Instructor Responsibilities](https://flight-study.com/flight-instructor-responsibilities/): Learning to fly should provide learners with an opportunity for exploration and experimentation. It should be a habit-building period during which learners devote their attention, memory, and judgment to the development of correct habit patterns. All aviation instructors shoulder an enormous responsibility because their learners will ultimately be flying, servicing, or repairing aircraft. Flight instructors may have the additional responsibility regarding evaluation of learner pilots and deciding when they are ready to solo. The flight instructor’s job is to “mold” the learner pilot into a safe pilot who takes a professional approach to flying. Other flight instructor responsibilities can be found ... Read more
- [Aviation Instructor Responsibilities](https://flight-study.com/aviation-instructor-responsibilities/): The job of an aviation instructor is to transfer knowledge. Previous sections have discussed how people learn, the teaching process, and teaching methods. To summarize in brief, instructors help learners meet and exceed established standards. Instructors measure learner performance against those standards and give positive reinforcement along the way. [Figure 1] Figure 1. There are five main responsibilities of aviation instructors Helping Learners Learning should be an enjoyable experience. By making each lesson a pleasurable experience, the instructor helps the learner maintain a high level of motivation. This does not mean the instructor sacrifices standards of performance to make things easy. ... Read more
- [Single-Pilot Resource Management](https://flight-study.com/single-pilot-resource-management/): SRM is the art and science of managing all the resources (both on-board the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior and during flight) to ensure that the successful outcome of the flight is never in doubt. The emergence of very light jet (VLJ) aircraft may also affect air travel. [Figure] Central to their economic success is the concept of single-pilot operations. Since the aircraft is heavily automated, the pilot’s workload may actually be less than the current workload in some high performance single-engine aircraft. This allows more time for the pilot to gather and analyze information ... Read more
- [Scenario-Based Training (SBT)](https://flight-study.com/scenario-based-training-sbt-2/): Improper pilot decisions cause a significant percentage of all accidents and the majority of fatal accidents in light single-and twin-engine aircraft. The goal of SBT is to challenge the learner or transitioning pilot with a variety of flight scenarios to improve decision-making skills. These scenarios train the pilot to manage the resources available in the flight deck, consider hazards, exercise sound judgment, and make timely decisions that promote safety. As defined in The Teaching Process, SBT is a training method that uses a highly structured script of real world experiences to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment. Such training ... Read more
- [Lesson Plans](https://flight-study.com/lesson-plans/): A lesson plan is an organized outline for a single instructional period. It is a necessary guide for the instructor because it tells what to do, in what order to do it, and what procedure to use in teaching the material of a lesson. Lesson plans should be prepared for each training period and be developed to show specific knowledge and/or skills to be taught. A mental outline of a lesson is not a lesson plan. A lesson plan should be put into writing. Another instructor should be able to take the lesson plan and know what to do in conducting ... Read more
- [Training Syllabus](https://flight-study.com/training-syllabus/): Instructors need a practical guide to help them make sure the training is accomplished in a logical sequence and that all of the requirements are completed and properly documented. A well organized, comprehensive syllabus can fulfill these needs. Syllabus Format and Content The format and organization of the syllabus may vary, but it always should be in the form of an abstract or digest of the course of training. It should contain blocks of learning to be completed in the most efficient order. Since a syllabus is intended to be a summary of a course of training, it should be fairly ... Read more
- [Course of Training and Blocks of Learning](https://flight-study.com/course-of-training-and-blocks-of-learning/): Course of Training Whatever the method of teaching, the key to developing well-planned and organized aviation instruction includes using lesson plans and a training syllabus that meet all regulatory certification requirements. Much of the basic planning necessary for the flight instructor and maintenance instructor is provided by the knowledge and proficiency requirements published in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 61 and 65, approved school syllabi, and the various texts, manuals, and training courses available. As discussed in The Teaching Process, a course of training is a series of studies leading to attainment of a specific ... Read more
- [Planning Instructional Activity](https://flight-study.com/planning-instructional-activity/): Susan (learner) and Bill (flight instructor) are flying a lesson scenario which consists of a short cross-country leg to a local airport for some practice landings followed by a return to the home airport located in Class C airspace. While practicing landings at the nontowered airport, Susan notes that the ceiling is lowering, and the crosswind is beginning to increase. In his own mind, Bill is convinced that they can practice landings for another 30 minutes to an hour and still return to home base. However, instead of telling Susan this, while taxiing back after a full stop landing, he first ... Read more
- [Scenario-Based Training](https://flight-study.com/scenario-based-training/): Since flying has become more complex, the focus of training needs to address pilot decision-making and risk management, a concept the authors call Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM). Since SRM training requires practicing the decision-making process in real time and in real situations, a new form of GA training that goes beyond the traditional task and maneuver-based training is recommended. The FITS program emphasizes combining traditional task and maneuver training with Scenario Based Training (SBT) to teach the advanced pilot judgment and risk management skills required in the SRM environment. In many respects, scenario-based training is not a new concept. Experienced ... Read more
- [Critiques and Oral Assessments](https://flight-study.com/critiques-and-oral-assessments/): Used in conjunction with either traditional or authentic assessment, the critique is an instructor-to-learner assessment. These methods can also be used either individually, or in a classroom setting. The word critique sometimes has a negative connotation, and the instructor needs to avoid using this method as an opportunity to be overly critical of learner performance. An effective critique considers good as well as bad performance, the individual parts, relationships of the individual parts, and the overall performance. A critique can and usually should be as varied in content as the performance being evaluated. A critique may be oral, written, or both. ... Read more
- [Choosing an Effective Assessment Method](https://flight-study.com/choosing-an-effective-assessment-method/): When deciding how to assess learner progress, aviation instructors can follow a four-step process. Determine level-of-learning objectives. List indicators of desired behaviors. Establish criterion objectives. Develop criterion-referenced test items. This process is useful for tests that apply to the cognitive and affective domains of learning, and also can be used for skill testing in the psychomotor domain. The development process for criterion-referenced tests follows a general-to-specific pattern. [Figure] The development process for criterion-referenced tests follows a general-to-specific pattern Instructors should be aware that authentic assessment may not be as useful as traditional assessment in the early phases of training, because the ... Read more
- [Authentic Assessment](https://flight-study.com/authentic-assessment/): Authentic assessment asks the learner to perform real-world tasks and demonstrate a meaningful application of skills and competencies. Authentic assessment lies at the heart of training today’s aviation learner to use critical thinking skills. Rather than selecting from predetermined responses, learners must generate responses from skills and concepts they have learned. By using open-ended questions and established performance criteria, authentic assessment focuses on the learning process, enhances the development of real-world skills, encourages higher order thinking skills, and teaches learners to assess their own work and performance. Learner-Centered Assessment There are several aspects of effective authentic assessment. The first is the ... Read more
- [Traditional Assessment](https://flight-study.com/traditional-assessment/): As defined earlier, traditional assessment generally refers to written testing, such as multiple choice, matching, true/false, fill in the blank, etc. Learners typically complete written assessments within a specified time. There is a single, correct response for each item. The assessment, or test, assumes that all learners should learn the same thing, and relies on rote memorization of facts. Responses are often machine scored and offer little opportunity for a demonstration of the thought processes characteristic of critical thinking skills. Traditional assessment lends itself to instructor centered teaching styles. The instructor teaches the material at a low level, and the measure ... Read more
- [Purpose and Characteristics of Effective Assessment](https://flight-study.com/purpose-and-characteristics-of-effective-assessment/): Purpose of Assessment An effective assessment provides critical information to both the instructor and the learner. Both instructor and learner need to know how well the learner is progressing. A good assessment provides practical and specific feedback to learners. This includes direction and guidance indicating how they may raise their level of performance. Most importantly, a well-designed and effective assessment provides an opportunity for self-evaluation that enhances the learner’s aeronautical decision-making and judgment skills. A well-designed assessment highlights the areas in which a learner’s performance is incorrect or inadequate, it helps the instructor see where more emphasis is needed. If, for ... Read more
- [Assessment Terminology](https://flight-study.com/assessment-terminology/): This section presents two broad categories of assessment. The first is traditional assessment, which often involves the kind of written testing (e.g., multiple choice, matching) and grading that is most familiar to instructors and learners. To achieve a passing score on a traditional assessment, the learner usually has a set amount of time to recognize or reproduce memorized terms, formulas, or data. There is a single answer that is correct. Consequently, the traditional assessment usually assesses the learner’s progress at the rote and understanding levels of learning. However, carefully crafted scenario questions can assess higher levels of learning. The second category ... Read more
- [Assessment of Teaching and Learning](https://flight-study.com/assessment-of-teaching-and-learning/): Assessment is an essential component of teaching and learning, and it provides the instructor with immediate feedback on the quality of instruction. Instructors continuously evaluate a learner’s performance in order to provide guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive reinforcement. This section examines the instructor’s role when assessing levels of learning, it describes methods of assessment, and it discusses how instructors may construct and conduct effective assessments. Since learners are different and each situation is unique, instructors individualize an assessment as needed. Aviation instructors can use the techniques and methods described in this section as appropriate. CONTENTS Assessment Terminology Purpose of Assessment ... Read more
- [Test Preparation Material and Future Developments](https://flight-study.com/test-preparation-material-and-future-developments/): Test Preparation Material Test preparation material applies to an array of paper, video, and computer software products that are designed by commercial publishers to help learner applicants prepare for FAA tests. While test preparation materials may be effective in preparing for FAA tests, the danger is that learners may be able to pass a given test, but fail to learn other critical information essential to safe piloting and maintenance practices. FAA inspectors and designated examiners report that learner applicants sometimes exhibit a lack of knowledge during oral questioning, even though many have easily passed the FAA knowledge test. A major shortcoming ... Read more
- [Instructional Aids and Training Technologies](https://flight-study.com/instructional-aids-and-training-technologies/): Instructional aids are devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught. In contrast, training media are generally described as any physical means that communicates an instructional message to learners. For example, the instructor’s voice, printed text, video cassettes, interactive computer programs, part-task trainers, flight training devices, or flight simulators, and numerous other types of training devices are considered training media. In school settings, instructors may be involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, but they often are already in place. An independent instructor may ... Read more
- [Application and Assessment of the Lesson](https://flight-study.com/application-and-assessment-of-the-lesson/): Application of the Lesson Application is the learner’s use of the presented material. If it is a classroom presentation, the learner may be asked to explain the new material. If it is a new flight maneuver, the learner may be asked to perform the maneuver just been demonstrated. In most instructional situations, the instructor’s explanation and demonstration activities alternate with learner performance efforts. Usually the instructor offers corrections and further demonstrations. This is necessary because each learner needs to perform the maneuver or operation the right way the first few times to establish a good habit. Faulty habits are difficult to ... Read more
- [Drill and Practice Method](https://flight-study.com/drill-and-practice-method/): Drill and practice, based on Thorndike’s law of exercise discussed in The Learning Process, predicts that connections are strengthened with practice. The human mind rarely retains, evaluates, and applies new concepts or practices after one exposure. Learners do not master welding during one shop period or perform crosswind landings during one instructional flight. They learn by practicing and applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. Effective use of drill and practice revolves around what skill is being developed. The instructor provides opportunities for learners to practice and while directing the process toward an objective. ... Read more
- [Demonstration-Performance Method](https://flight-study.com/demonstration-performance-method/): Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice, the demonstration-performance method is based on the principle that people learn by doing. In this method, learners observe the skill and then try to reproduce it. It is well suited for the aircraft maintenance instructor who uses it in the shop to teach welding, and the flight instructor who uses it in teaching piloting skills. Every instructor should recognize the importance of learner performance in the process. Early in demonstration and performance lesson, the instructor should identify the most important learning outcomes. Next, explain and demonstrate the steps ... Read more
- [Cooperative or Group Learning Method](https://flight-study.com/cooperative-or-group-learning-method/): Cooperative or group learning organizes learners into small groups who can work together to maximize understanding. Research indicates that learners completing cooperative learning group tasks tend to have better test scores, higher self-esteem, improved social skills, and greater comprehension of the subjects they are studying. Perhaps the most significant characteristic of group learning is that it continually requires active participation in the learning process. Conditions and Controls In spite of its advantages, success with cooperative or group learning depends on conditions and controls. First of all, instructors need to begin planning early to determine what the group is expected to learn ... Read more
- [Electronic Learning](https://flight-study.com/electronic-learning/): Electronic learning or e-learning has become an umbrella term for any type of education that involves an electronic component. [Figure 1] E-learning comes in many formats. It can be a stand-alone software program that takes a learner from lecture to exam or it can be an interactive web-based course. Figure 1. E-learning encompasses a variety of electronic educational media Time flexible, cost competitive, learner-centered, easily updated, accessible anytime and anywhere; e-learning has many advantages that make it a popular addition to the field of education. E-learning is now used for training at many different levels. For example, technology flight training devices ... Read more
- [Problem-Based Learning](https://flight-study.com/problem-based-learning/): In 1966, the McMaster University School of Medicine in Canada pioneered a new approach to teaching and curriculum design called problem-based learning (PBL). In the intervening years, PBL has helped shift the focus of learning from an instructor-centered approach to a learner-centered approach. There are many definitions for PBL, but this site defines it as a learning environment where lessons involve learners with problems encountered in real life and that ask them to find real-world solutions. PBL starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in helping the learner gain a ... Read more
- [Training Delivery Methods](https://flight-study.com/training-delivery-methods/): Today’s instructor can choose from a wealth of ways to present instructional material: lecture, discussion, guided discussion, problem based, group learning, demonstration-performance, or e-learning. In a typical lesson, an effective instructor normally uses a combination of methods. The instructor determines which teaching method best conveys the information and when to use it. For example, Bob lectures in the opening scenario, but after teaching how to compute weight and balance, he uses group learning to reinforce the lecture. Lecture Method In the lecture method, the instructor delivers knowledge via lectures to learners who are more or less silent participants. Lectures are best ... Read more
- [Presentation of a Lesson and Organization of Material](https://flight-study.com/presentation-of-a-lesson-and-organization-of-material/): Presentation of a Lesson How does an instructor keep the attention of a class? The steps in Figure 1 form a guideline for lesson presentation. Many of them can be combined during the actual presentation. For example, consider a video presentation given during the weight and balance lecture. The video adds a multimedia element to the lecture, is a good attention getter, and can visually demonstrate the learning objective. Figure 1. Guidelines for presenting lessons Organization of Material After determining objectives and standards, an instructor formulates a plan of action to lead learners through the course in a logical manner toward ... Read more
- [Preparation of a Lesson](https://flight-study.com/preparation-of-a-lesson/): A determination of objectives and standards precedes instruction. Although some schools and independent instructors may develop their own syllabus, in practice, many instructors use a commercially-developed syllabus. For the aviation instructor, the objectives listed in the syllabus are a beginning point for instruction. Training Objectives and Standards Aviation training involves two types of objectives: performance-based and decision-based. Performance-based objectives help define exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson. As the learner progresses through higher levels of performance and understanding, the instructor should shift the training focus to decision-based training objectives. Decision-based training objectives rely ... Read more
- [Course of Training](https://flight-study.com/course-of-training/): In education, a course of training is a complete series of studies leading to attainment of a specific goal. The goal might be a certificate of completion, graduation, or an academic degree. For example, a learner pilot may enroll in a private pilot certificate course, and upon completion of all course requirements, be awarded a graduation certificate. A course of training also may be limited to something like the additional training required for operating high-performance airplanes. Other terms closely associated with a course of training include curriculum, syllabus, and lesson plan. A curriculum for pilot training usually includes courses for the ... Read more
- [Instructor's Code of Ethics](https://flight-study.com/instructors-code-of-ethics/): While many of the characteristics of effective instructors discussed in the previous post hold true for any instructor, the aviation instructor has the added responsibility of molding an aviation citizen—a pilot or maintenance technician who will be an asset to the rest of the aviation community. The following code describes the concept of a good aviation citizen. An aviation instructor needs to remember he or she is teaching a pilot or technician who should: Make safety the number one priority, Develop and exercise good judgment in making decisions, Recognize and manage risk effectively, Be accountable for his or her actions, Act ... Read more
- [What is Teaching?](https://flight-study.com/what-is-teaching/): Teaching is to instruct or train. Teachers often complete some type of formal training, have specialized knowledge, have been certified or validated in some way, and adhere to a set of standards of performance. Defining a “good instructor” has proven more elusive, but in The Essence of Good Teaching (1985), psychologist Stanford C. Ericksen wrote “good teachers select and organize worthwhile course material, lead learners to encode and integrate this material in memorable form, ensure competence in the procedures and methods of a discipline, sustain intellectual curiosity, and promote how to learn independently.” Process The teaching process organizes the material an ... Read more
- [The Teaching Process](https://flight-study.com/the-teaching-process/): Bob, an aviation maintenance instructor, arrives thirty minutes before a scheduled class to prepare for the lesson he plans to present that day. A quick visual scan tells him the classroom has good lighting, the desks are in order, and the room presents a neat overall appearance. He places his lecture notes on the podium, checking to make sure they are all there and in the correct order. Then, he turns on the computer to ensure the components are working correctly. A quick run of his visual presentation reassures him this portion of his lecture is ready. Next, he counts the ... Read more
- [Developing Communication Skills](https://flight-study.com/developing-communication-skills/): Communication skills need to be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience. The experience of instructional communication begins with role playing during training to be an instructor, continues during the actual instruction, and is enhanced by additional training. Role Playing Role playing is a method of learning in which learners perform a particular role. In role playing, the learner is provided with a general description of a situation and then applies a new skill or knowledge to perform the role. Experience in instructional communication comes from actually doing it and is learned in the ... Read more
- [Barriers to Effective Communication](https://flight-study.com/barriers-to-effective-communication/): It is essential to understand the dynamics of communication, but the instructor also needs to be aware of several barriers to communication that can inhibit learning. The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. These misunderstandings can be identified by four barriers to effective communication: lack of common experience, confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object, overuse of abstractions, and external factors. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Misunderstandings stem primarily from four barriers to effective communication Lack of Common Experience Lack of common experience between the communicator (instructor) and the receiver (learner) is probably the ... Read more
- [Basic Elements of Communication](https://flight-study.com/basic-elements-of-communication/): Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group of people. The effectiveness of the communication is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received. The process of communication is composed of three elements: Source (sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor) Symbols used in composing and transmitting the message (words or signs [model prop/desk lamp in Figure 1]) Receiver (listener, reader, decoder, or learner) Figure 1. An aviation instructor communicates with her learner using model airplanes to ensure the learner’s understanding of the principles discussed The three elements are dynamically ... Read more
- [Effective Communication](https://flight-study.com/effective-communication/): Carol, a flight instructor, has planned the first tailwheel flight with Jacob, her learner pilot. She begins the preflight briefing with an explanation of the tendency of tailwheel aircraft to yaw in normal takeoff. This yawing tendency gives the illusion that the tailwheel aircraft is unstable during the takeoff. Since this yawing tendency occurs on every takeoff, it is predictable and the pilot is able to compensate for it. Carol then discusses the precession, which causes the noticeable yaw when the tail is raised from a three-point attitude to a level flight attitude. This change of attitude tilts the horizontal axis ... Read more
- [Transfer of Learning](https://flight-study.com/transfer-of-learning/): Transfer of learning is broadly defined as the ability to apply knowledge or procedures learned in one context to new contexts. Learning occurs more quickly and he or she develops a deeper understanding of the task if he or she brings some knowledge or skills from previous learning. A positive transfer of learning occurs when the individual practices under a variety of conditions, underscoring again the value of SBT. A distinction is commonly made between near and far transfer. Near transfer consists of transfer from initial learning that is situated in a given setting to ones that are closely related. Far ... Read more
- [Retention of Learning](https://flight-study.com/retention-of-learning/): Each of the theories of forgetting implies that when a person forgets something, it is not actually lost. Rather, it is simply unavailable for recall. The instructor’s problem is how to make certain that the learner’s learning is readily available for recall. The following suggestions can help. Teach thoroughly and with meaning. Material thoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting. This is suggested by experimental studies and it also was pointed out in the sections on skill learning. Meaningful learning builds patterns of relationships in the learner’s consciousness, which is one reason to conduct SBT. In contrast, rote learning is superficial ... Read more
- [Memory](https://flight-study.com/memory/): Memory is the vital link between the learner learning/retaining information and the cognitive process of applying what is learned. It is the ability of people and other organisms to encode (initial perception and registration of information), store (retention of encoded information over time), and retrieve (processes involved in using stored information) information. [Figure] When a person successfully recalls a past experience (or skill), information about the experience has been encoded, stored, and retrieved. Information processing within the sensory register, working on short-term memory, and long-term memory includes complex coding, sorting, storing, and recall functions Although there is no universal agreement of ... Read more
- [Errors](https://flight-study.com/errors/): Errors are a natural part of human performance. Beginners, as well as the most highly skilled experts, are vulnerable to error, and this is perhaps the most important thing to understand about error. To believe people can eliminate errors from their performance is to commit the biggest error of all. Instructors and learners alike should be prepared for occasional errors by learning about common kinds of errors, how errors can be minimized, how to learn from errors, and how to recover from errors when they are made. Kinds of Errors There are two kinds of errors: slips and mistakes. Slip A ... Read more
- [Scenario-Based Training (SBT)](https://flight-study.com/scenario-based-training-sbt/): Research and practical experience have demonstrated the usefulness of practicing in realistic scenarios—ones that resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills are later used. Instructors should devise scenarios that allow learners to practice what they have learned. This is challenging because different learners need to practice different things at different times, and because different working environments present different practice opportunities. What makes a good scenario? A good scenario: Has a clear set of objectives. Is tailored to the needs of the learner. Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment. For example, Bill is introducing Beverly to a low-fuel emergency. ... Read more
- [Putting It All Together](https://flight-study.com/putting-it-all-together/): Many skills are taught before a learner can fly an airplane or a maintenance learner can rebuild an aircraft engine. Just as practicing scales is a fundamental part of learning to play the piano, the learner does not “make music” until the ability to combine the notes in a variety of ways is acquired. For the learner pilot or technician, practicing specific skills is essential, but flying a cross-country trip or repairing a collapsed landing gear requires “putting it all together” in the right way to achieve success. The following section looks at the challenge of learning to perform several tasks ... Read more
- [Evaluation Versus Critique](https://flight-study.com/evaluation-versus-critique/): In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical suggestions are more valuable to the learner than a grade. Early evaluation is usually teacher oriented. It provides a check on teaching effectiveness, can be used to predict learner outcomes, and can help the teacher locate special problem areas. The observations on which the evaluations are based also can identify the learner’s strengths and weaknesses, a prerequisite for making constructive criticism. For additional information, refer to Assessment. As a learner practices a skill, it is important he or she perform the skill correctly and that the skill being practiced is one that needs ... Read more
- [Types of Practice](https://flight-study.com/types-of-practice/): Once a learner learns the skill, it is important to continue some practice to improve retention, but the power law of practice raises the question of whether or not there is a point at which continued practice no longer leads to improvement. Since athletic coaches, among others, are very interested in maximizing performance, much research has been done on the subject. Within the last few years, research has shown that how practice is structured makes an important impact on how well people retain what they have learned. There are three types of practice, each of which yields particular results in acquiring ... Read more
- [Acquiring Skill Knowledge](https://flight-study.com/acquiring-skill-knowledge/): An aviation instructor also helps a learner acquire skill knowledge, which is knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills and in cognitive or mental skills, that manifests itself in the doing of something. Thus, skill knowledge differs from declarative knowledge because the learner is not usually aware of it consciously or able to articulate the skill. Evidence of skill knowledge is gained through observations of performance. This knowledge of how to do things is based on extensive practice, which leads to the storage of skill knowledge. An everyday example of skill knowledge is the ability to ride a bicycle. Skill knowledge ... Read more
- [Learning Styles](https://flight-study.com/learning-styles/): Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning based on the fact that people absorb and process information in different ways. Learning style is an individual’s preference for understanding experiences and changing them into knowledge. It denotes the typical strategy a learner adopts in a learning situation. For example, information may be learned in a variety of ways: by seeing or hearing, by reflecting or acting, analyzing or visualizing, or it may be learned piecemeal or steadily. Just as people learn differently, they also have different teaching methods. Some instructors rely on lectures, others demonstrate, and others may prefer ... Read more
- [Characteristics of Learning](https://flight-study.com/characteristics-of-learning/): The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a person’s lifetime. To understand how people learn, it is necessary to understand what happens to the individual during the process. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree there are many characteristics of learning. Knowledge of the general characteristics of learning help an aviation instructor use them in a learning situation. If learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, then instruction needs to include a careful and systematic creation of those experiences that promote learning. This process ... Read more
- [Domains of Learning](https://flight-study.com/domains-of-learning/): As mentioned during the discussion of Cognitive Theory, Dr. Bloom played a central role in transforming the field of educational psychology. Interested in what and how people learn, he proposed a framework to help understand the major areas of learning and thinking. He first classified them into three large groups [Figure 1] called the domains of learning: Figure 1. An overview of the three learning domains Cognitive (thinking) Affective (feeling) Psychomotor (doing) Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain is one of the best known educational domains. It includes remembering specific facts (content knowledge) and concepts that help develop intellectual abilities and skills. ... Read more
- [Thorndike and the Laws of Learning](https://flight-study.com/thorndike-and-the-laws-of-learning/): One of the pioneers of educational psychology, E.L. Thorndike formulated three laws of learning in the early 20th century. [Figure] These laws are universally accepted and apply to all kinds of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect. Since Thorndike set down his laws, three more have been added: the law of primacy, the law of intensity, and the law of recency. E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949) Readiness The basic needs of the learner need to be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning (see Human Behavior). The instructor can do ... Read more
- [Acquiring Knowledge](https://flight-study.com/acquiring-knowledge/): Part of an aviation instructor’s job is helping learners acquire knowledge. In this context, knowledge refers to information that humans are consciously aware of and can articulate. For example, knowledge of the fuel capacity of a particular aircraft, understanding how an internal combustion engine works, and the ability to determine the weight and balance of an aircraft are examples of knowledge. A learner acquires knowledge through memorization, understanding, and application Figure shows the three phases of knowledge, a progression of how learners acquire knowledge. Some practical considerations about learning new knowledge and instructor actions that help learners acquire knowledge are summarized. ... Read more
- [Insight](https://flight-study.com/insight/): Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities. To ensure that this occurs, it is essential to keep each learner constantly receptive to new experiences and to help them understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task. For example, during straight-and-level flight in an aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller, the revolutions per minute (rpm) increase when the throttle is opened and decrease when it is closed. On the other hand, rpm changes can also result from changes in aircraft pitch attitude without changes ... Read more
- [Perceptions](https://flight-study.com/perceptions/): Initially, all learning comes from perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Psychologists have also found that learning occurs most rapidly when information is received through more than one sense. [Figure] Most learning occurs through sight, but the combination of sight and hearing accounts for about 88 percent of all perception Perception involves more than the reception of stimuli from the five senses; it also involves a person giving meaning to sensations. People base their actions on the way they believe things to be. The experienced AMT, ... Read more
- [Learning Theory](https://flight-study.com/learning-theory/): Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Primary learning theories include classical and operant conditioning and social learning. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Learning theories of psychology include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning Classical conditioning is learning based on an association made between a neutral environmental stimulus and a natural stimulus. For example, the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov discovered that a dog could be trained to associate the sound of a beating metronome with being fed. Pavlov would start the metronome before presenting the dog with ... Read more
- [The Learning Process](https://flight-study.com/the-learning-process/): The First Flight When Beverly (learner) enthusiastically presents herself for her first day of flight instruction, Bill, her flight instructor, decides to spend some time in the classroom. Beverly knows a lot of facts about flying and shares her knowledge with Bill, but when he asks questions to test her understanding of the facts, she cannot answer them. During their first flight, Bill discovers Beverly has mastered a few basic skills but her performance is awkward, as if she were working from a list of memorized steps. In the early stages of flight training, Beverly focuses all her attention on performing ... Read more
- [Teaching the Adult Learner](https://flight-study.com/teaching-the-adult-learner/): While aviation instructors teach learners of all ages, the average aviation learner age is 30 years old. This means the aviation instructor needs to be versed in the needs of adult learners. The field of adult education is relatively young, having been established in the late twentieth century by Dr. Malcolm Knowles. His research revealed certain traits that need to be recognized when teaching adult learners as well as ways instructors can use these traits to teach older learners. Adults as learners possess the following characteristics: Adults who are motivated to seek out a learning experience do so primarily because they ... Read more
- [AMTs and Flight Instructors as Learners](https://flight-study.com/amts-and-flight-instructors-as-learners/): Both AMTs and flight instructors sometimes deal with new or unfamiliar technology. For instance, an instructor flying a different aircraft may have to manage a particular system or avionics suite for the first time. Likewise, the AMT who is accustomed to working with one type of aircraft has developed analytical processes that may not transfer to another aircraft as well as expected. In both cases, the instructors may be very highly experienced, but change and its associated stress may have risk consequences. Technological advances in aircraft, powerplants, and systems can outpace the knowledge of flight instructors and AMTs if they don’t ... Read more
- [Learner Emotional Reactions](https://flight-study.com/learner-emotional-reactions/): While it is not necessary for a flight instructor to be a certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to analyze learner behavior before and during each flight lesson. This ability helps a flight instructor develop and use appropriate techniques for instruction yet to occur. Anxiety Anxiety is probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction. This is true because flying is a potentially threatening experience for those who are not accustomed to flying and the fear of falling is universal in human beings. While anxiety is a factor associated with aviation activities where lives depend on consistently doing ... Read more
- [Defense Mechanisms](https://flight-study.com/defense-mechanisms/): Defense mechanisms can be biological or psychological. The biological defense mechanism is a physiological response that protects or preserves organisms. For example, when humans experience a danger or a threat, the “fight or flight” response kicks in. Adrenaline and other chemicals are activated and physical symptoms such as rapid heart rate and increased blood pressure occur. For example, when an anxious learner pilot reacts to impending and full stalls during practice, the anxiety that the learner pilot may feel may resolve itself into a “fight or flight” response. There may be limited time to analyze the problem. Therefore, the learner needs ... Read more
- [Human Nature and Motivation](https://flight-study.com/human-nature-and-motivation/): Human nature refers to the general psychological characteristics, feelings, and behavioral traits shared by all humans. Consider Jason, who came to aviation because he wanted to participate more actively in another realm of his business. Derek needs to capitalize on this motivation to keep Jason interested in the step-by-step procedures that need to be learned in order to fly safely. There is a gap between Jason and his goal of earning a pilot certificate. It is Derek’s job to close the gap. The successful instructor channels learner motivation and guides the learner toward the goal of obtaining aviation skills through education, ... Read more
- [Human Needs and Motivation](https://flight-study.com/human-needs-and-motivation/): Human needs are things all humans require for normal growth and development. These needs have been studied by psychologists and categorized in a number of ways. Henry A. Murray, one of the founders of personality psychology who was active in developing a theory of motivation, identified a list of core psychological needs in 1938. He described these needs as being either primary (based on biological needs, such as the need for food) or secondary (generally psychological, such as the need for independence). Murray believed the interplay of these needs produce distinct personality types and are internal influences on behavior. Murray’s research ... Read more
- [Maintaining Motivation](https://flight-study.com/maintaining-motivation/): Motivation is generally not something that can be transferred from one person to another. Instructors should become skillful at recognizing problems with motivation and at encouraging learners to continue to do their best. Rewarding Success Positive feedback encourages learners. Practice positive feedback frequently by: Praising incremental successes during training. Relating daily accomplishments to lesson objectives. Commenting favorably on learner progress and level ability. For example, as the learner progresses through training, remark on the milestones. When a learner first performs a task alone, congratulate him or her on having learned it. When that same skill reaches an intermediate level, point out ... Read more
- [Motivation](https://flight-study.com/motivation/): Motivation is the reason one acts or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals. A goal is the object of a person’s effort. Motivation prompts learners to engage in hard work and affects learner success. Being smart or coordinated seldom guarantees success, but motivation routinely propels learners to the top. An important part of an aviation instructor’s job is to discover what motivates each learner and to use this information to encourage him or her to work hard. Motivation is probably the dominant force that governs the learner’s progress and ability to understand and can be ... Read more
- [Definitions of Human Behavior](https://flight-study.com/definitions-of-human-behavior/): The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why humans function the way they do. A complex topic, human behavior is a product both of innate human nature and of individual experience and environment. Definitions of human behavior abound, depending on the field of study. In the scientific world, human behavior is seen as the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways. For example, speaking in public is very high on the list of fears many people have. While no two people react the same to any given fear, fear itself does trigger ... Read more
- [IFR Flight: Procedures and Operations](https://flight-study.com/ifr-flight-procedures-and-operations/): This section is a discussion of conducting a flight under instrument flight rules (IFR). It also explains the sources for flight planning, the conditions associated with instrument flight, and the procedures used for each phase of IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. Understanding these procedures is essential for pilots conducting IFR operations. Proper flight planning, clearances, navigation, holding, and instrument approach procedures help pilots manage each phase of an IFR flight safely and efficiently. The section concludes with an example of an IFR flight that applies many of the procedures discussed in the section. The following topics cover the information ... Read more
- [Navigation Systems for Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/navigation-systems-for-instrument-flying/): This section provides the basic radio principles applicable to navigation equipment, along with the operational knowledge required to use these systems during instrument flight. A clear understanding of navigation system operation is essential for accurate course tracking and effective instrument flying. This knowledge provides the framework for instrument procedures such as standard instrument departures (SIDs), departure procedures (DPs), holding patterns, and instrument approaches. Each of these procedures depends on accurate attitude instrument flying combined with precise navigation and course guidance. Modern instrument flying may involve traditional ground-based navigation systems as well as advanced technologies such as required navigation performance (RNP), flight ... Read more
- [Helicopter Attitude Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/helicopter-attitude-instrument-flying/): Attitude instrument flying in helicopters is essentially visual flying with the flight instruments substituted for the various reference points on the helicopter and the natural horizon. Control changes, required to produce a given attitude by reference to instruments, are identical to those used in helicopter visual flight rules (VFR) flight, and pilot thought processes are the same. Basic instrument training is intended to be a building block toward attaining an instrument rating. When flying a helicopter with reference to the flight instruments, proper instrument interpretation is the basis for aircraft control. Skill, in part, depends on understanding how a particular instrument ... Read more
- [Aircraft Weight and Balance](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-weight-and-balance/): Aircraft weight and balance are essential considerations for the safe and effective operation of any aircraft. The aircraft manufacturer establishes the basic weight and center of gravity (C of G) of each aircraft. However, these values can change during the aircraft’s service life as a result of modifications, repainting, replacement of major components, or structural repairs. Compliance with the approved weight and balance limitations is critical to flight safety. Operating an aircraft above its maximum weight limitation can compromise structural integrity and adversely affect aircraft performance. Similarly, operating with the center of gravity (CG) outside the approved limits can result in ... Read more
- [Flight Manuals and Aircraft Documents](https://flight-study.com/flight-manuals-and-aircraft-documents/): Each aircraft comes with documentation and a set of manuals with which a pilot must be familiar in order to fly that aircraft. Flight manual is a paper book or electronic information set containing vital procedural and performance related information for a particular aircraft or aircraft Type. Manuals must be kept up to date, inaccurate information could compromise the safety of the aircraft. This section covers airplane flight manuals (AFM), the pilot’s operating handbook (POH), and aircraft documents pertaining to ownership, airworthiness, maintenance, and operations with inoperative equipment. Knowledge of these required documents and manuals is essential for a pilot to ... Read more
- [Aircraft Systems: Complete Guide for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-systems-complete-guide-for-pilots/): All aircraft have the requirement for essential interconnected and integrated systems, the performance of which is critical to safe operations. Most aircraft have a standardized set of systems, and these systems are dependent on some power source. There are also a variety of support systems provided for comfort, regulatory, or human physiological reasons. This section covers the primary systems found on most aircraft. These include the engine, propeller, induction, ignition, as well as the fuel, lubrication, cooling, electrical, landing gear, and environmental control systems. Understanding how these systems operate and interact is essential for pilots. Knowledge of their basic functions also ... Read more
- [Introduction To Flying](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-flying/): This section offers a brief history of flight and introduces the history and role of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in civil aviation. It also provides an overview of FAA regulations and standards, government references and publications, and the requirements and pathways involved in becoming a pilot. The section also explains the eligibility requirements for pilot certificates, available routes to flight instruction, and the roles of the Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in flight training. Understanding these fundamentals gives student pilots a clear foundation for beginning their aviation training. In addition, this section introduces the Practical Test ... Read more
- [Effect of Wind on Aircraft Navigation](https://flight-study.com/effect-of-wind-on-aircraft-navigation/): The preceding discussion explained how to measure a TC on the aeronautical chart and how to make corrections for variation and deviation, but one important factor has not been considered—wind. Wind is a mass of air moving over the surface of the Earth in a definite direction. When the wind is blowing from the north at 25 knots, it simply means that air is moving southward over the Earth’s surface at the rate of 25 NM in 1 hour. Under these conditions, any inert object free from contact with the Earth is carried 25 NM southward in 1 hour. This effect ... Read more
- [Latitude and Longitude for Pilot Navigation](https://flight-study.com/latitude-and-longitude-for-pilot-navigation/): Navigation begins with understanding the Earth’s geographic reference system and how direction is measured. Pilots use latitude and longitude to identify locations, time zones to coordinate flight operations, and directional references to plan and maintain accurate flight paths. Because aircraft navigation relies on both geographic and magnetic references, pilots must also understand concepts such as true course, magnetic variation, and compass deviation. These principles are essential for interpreting aeronautical charts, calculating headings, and navigating safely during VFR and IFR operations. The equator is an imaginary circle equidistant from the poles of the Earth. Circles parallel to the equator (lines running east ... Read more
- [Aeronautical Charts Explained for VFR Pilots](https://flight-study.com/aeronautical-charts-explained-for-vfr-pilots/): Aeronautical charts are the primary navigation reference for pilots operating under Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Much like a road map for motorists, these charts provide essential information that helps pilots determine their position, plan routes, identify landmarks, avoid hazards, and navigate safely from departure to destination. In addition to airports and navigational aids, aeronautical charts depict airspace boundaries, terrain elevations, obstacles, communication frequencies, and numerous other features that are critical for safe flight operations. Understanding how to interpret these charts is a fundamental skill for every pilot. The FAA publishes three primary aeronautical charts for VFR navigation, each designed for a ... Read more
- [Airport Operations for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/airport-operations-for-pilots/): Each time a pilot operates an aircraft, the flight normally begins and ends at an airport. An airport may be a small sod field or a large complex utilized by air carriers. Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb and descent attitudes, and pilot preoccupation with cockpit duties are some factors that increase the hazardous accident potential near the airport. The situation is further compounded when the weather is marginal, that is, just meeting visual flight rules (VFR) requirements. Pilots must be particularly alert when operating on or in the vicinity of an airport, where multiple aircraft, vehicles, and ground personnel may ... Read more
- [Engineered Materials Arresting Systems](https://flight-study.com/engineered-materials-arresting-systems/): An Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS) is a safety feature installed at the ends of selected runways to help stop aircraft that cannot be brought to a halt before the pavement ends. Designed as an alternative where a full Runway Safety Area (RSA) cannot be provided, EMAS reduces the risk of damage, injuries, and fatalities resulting from runway overruns. Understanding how EMAS works and the appropriate pilot actions during an overrun helps improve safety during takeoff and landing operations. Aircraft can and do overrun the ends of runways, sometimes with devastating results. An overrun occurs when an aircraft passes beyond the ... Read more
- [Collision Avoidance and Runway Safety](https://flight-study.com/collision-avoidance-and-runway-safety/): Collision avoidance is one of the most important responsibilities of every pilot. Although air traffic control, right-of-way rules, and onboard technologies help reduce the risk of midair collisions and runway incursions, pilots must remain vigilant throughout every phase of flight. Effective visual scanning, proper clearing procedures, situational awareness, and compliance with ATC instructions all contribute to safe flight operations. Understanding these techniques helps pilots detect potential hazards early and operate safely both in the air and on the airport surface. Title 14 of the CFR part 91 has established right-of-way rules, minimum safe altitudes, and VFR cruising altitudes to enhance flight ... Read more
- [Wake Turbulence: Vortex Behavior and Avoidance](https://flight-study.com/wake-turbulence-vortex-behavior-and-avoidance/): All aircraft generate wake turbulence during flight. This disturbance is caused by a pair of counter-rotating vortices trailing from the wingtips. The vortices from larger aircraft can pose a significant hazard to encountering aircraft. The wake of these aircraft can impose rolling moments exceeding the roll-control authority of the encountering aircraft. Also, the turbulence generated within the vortices can damage aircraft components and equipment if encountered at close range. For this reason, a pilot must envision the location of the vortex wake and adjust the flight path accordingly. Vortex Generation Lift is generated by the creation of a pressure differential over ... Read more
- [Air Traffic Control Services](https://flight-study.com/air-traffic-control-services/): Air Traffic Control (ATC) services play a vital role in maintaining the safe, orderly, and efficient flow of air traffic. Whether operating under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), pilots rely on ATC for services such as traffic advisories, radar surveillance, sequencing, and separation where applicable. Understanding how primary radar, transponders, ADS-B, and other ATC systems work helps pilots communicate effectively and operate safely within the National Airspace System (NAS). Besides the services provided by an FSS, as discussed in the Aviation Weather Services section, numerous other services are provided by ATC. In many instances a pilot is ... Read more
- [Aviation Radio Equipment and Communication Procedures](https://flight-study.com/aviation-radio-equipment-and-communication-procedures/): Operating in and out of a towered airport, as well as in a good portion of the airspace system, requires that an aircraft have two-way radio communication capability. For this reason, a pilot should be knowledgeable of radio station license requirements and radio communications equipment and procedures. Radio License There is no license requirement for a pilot operating in the United States; however, a pilot who operates internationally is required to hold a restricted radiotelephone permit issued by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). There is also no station license requirement for most general aviation aircraft operating in the United States. A ... Read more
- [Airport Traffic Patterns and Procedures](https://flight-study.com/airport-traffic-patterns-and-procedures/): Traffic patterns provide an organized flow of aircraft around an airport, helping pilots maintain safe separation during takeoff, landing, and other airport operations. At airports without an operating control tower, visual traffic pattern indicators and standard procedures assist pilots in determining the correct runway, traffic direction, and pattern altitude for safe operations. At airports without an operating control tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern information. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Segmented circle The segmented circle is usually located where it affords maximum visibility to pilots in the air and on the ground while ... Read more
- [Airport Visual Wind Indicators](https://flight-study.com/airport-visual-wind-indicators/): It is important for a pilot to know the direction of the wind. At facilities with an operating control tower, this information is provided by ATC. Wind information may also be provided by FSS personnel located at a particular airport or remotely through a Remote Communications Outlet (RCO). At airports equipped to receive and broadcast on a Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), pilots may also request wind information on that frequency. When none of these services is available, it is possible to determine the wind direction and the runway in use by observing visual wind indicators. A pilot should still check ... Read more
- [Airport Lighting Systems](https://flight-study.com/airport-lighting-systems/): Airport lighting plays a vital role in safe aircraft operations during nighttime and low-visibility conditions. Standardized lighting systems help pilots identify airports, runways, taxiways, approach paths, and potential hazards. Understanding the purpose and operation of these lighting systems is essential for safe takeoffs, landings, and ground movements. The majority of airports have some type of lighting for night operations. The variety and types of lighting systems depend on the volume and complexity of operations at a given airport. Airport lighting is standardized so that airports use the same light colors for runways and taxiways. Airport Beacon Airport beacons help a pilot ... Read more
- [Airport Markings, Signs, and Runway Operations](https://flight-study.com/airport-markings-signs-and-runway-operations/): There are markings and signs used at airports that provide directions and assist pilots in airport operations. It is important for you to know the meanings of the signs, markings, and lights that are used on airports as surface navigational aids. All airport markings are painted on the surface, whereas some signs are vertical and some are painted on the surface. An overview of the most common signs and markings is described on the following pages. Additional information may be found in Chapter 2, “Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids,” of the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Runway Markings and Signs ... Read more
- [Sources of Airport Information and Flight Planning](https://flight-study.com/sources-of-airport-information-and-flight-planning/): When a pilot flies into a different airport, it is important to review the current data for that airport. This data provides the pilot with information, such as communication frequencies, services available, closed runways, or airport construction. Four common sources of information are: Aeronautical Charts Aeronautical charts provide specific information on airports. The Navigation section contains an excerpt from an aeronautical chart and an aeronautical chart legend, which provide guidance on interpreting the information shown on the chart. Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) The Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) provides the most comprehensive information on a given airport. It ... Read more
- [Airport Categories and Tower Operations](https://flight-study.com/airport-categories-and-tower-operations/): An airport is defined as any area of land or water used or intended for the landing or takeoff of aircraft. This includes, within the five categories of airports listed below, special types of facilities including seaplane bases, heliports, and facilities to accommodate tilt rotor aircraft. An airport also includes areas intended for airport buildings, facilities, rights-of-way, and related infrastructure. The law defines airports by categories of airport activities, including commercial service, primary, cargo service, reliever, and general aviation airports, as shown below: Types of Airports There are two types of airports—towered and nontowered. These airport types can be further subdivided ... Read more
- [Flight Instruments Guide for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/flight-instruments-guide-for-pilots/): To safely operate any aircraft, a pilot must understand how to interpret and use the flight instruments. These instruments provide critical information about the aircraft’s attitude, altitude, airspeed, direction, and overall flight performance. Equally important is recognizing instrument errors and malfunctions to ensure safe decision-making during flight. This chapter explains the operation of the pitot-static system and its associated flight instruments, electronic flight displays, gyroscopic instruments, angle of attack indicators, compass systems, and outside air temperature gauges. Understanding how these systems function enables pilots to detect failures, verify instrument accuracy, and effectively manage both normal and abnormal flight situations. Whether flying ... Read more
- [Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge](https://flight-study.com/outside-air-temperature-oat-gauge/): The outside air temperature (OAT) gauge is a simple and effective device mounted so that the sensing element is exposed to the outside air. The sensing element consists of a bimetallic-type thermometer in which two dissimilar materials are welded together into a single strip and twisted into a helix. One end is anchored inside a protective tube, and the other end is affixed to the pointer, which reads against the calibration on a circular face. OAT gauges are calibrated in degrees Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), or both. An accurate outside air temperature provides the pilot with useful information about the temperature ... Read more
- [Aviation Magnetic Compass Principles and Errors](https://flight-study.com/aviation-magnetic-compass-principles-and-errors/): A magnetic compass is one of the oldest and most reliable flight instruments used in aviation. Although simple in design, it is affected by several types of errors that every pilot must understand to navigate safely. Learning how variation, deviation, magnetic dip, and acceleration affect compass readings helps pilots interpret the instrument correctly during all phases of flight. The Earth is a huge magnet, spinning in space, surrounded by a magnetic field made up of invisible lines of flux. These lines leave the surface at the magnetic North Pole and reenter at the magnetic South Pole. Lines of magnetic flux have ... Read more
- [Aircraft Gyroscopic Instruments](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-gyroscopic-instruments/): Several flight instruments utilize the properties of a gyroscope for their operation. The most common instruments containing gyroscopes are the turn coordinator, heading indicator, and the attitude indicator. To understand how these instruments operate requires knowledge of the instrument power systems, gyroscopic principles, and the operating principles of each instrument. Gyroscopic Principles Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties. A wheel or rotor designed and mounted to utilize these properties is called a gyroscope. Two important design characteristics of an instrument gyro are great weight for its size, or high density, and rotation at high speed with low friction bearings. There are ... Read more
- [Electronic Flight Displays (EFDs)](https://flight-study.com/electronic-flight-displays-efds/): Advances in technology have brought about changes in the instrumentation found in all types of aircraft; for example, Electronic Flight Displays (EFDs), commonly referred to as “glass cockpits.” EFDs include flight displays such as primary flight displays (PFD) and multi-function displays (MFD). This technology has changed not only the information available to pilots but also the way it is displayed. In addition to the improvement in system reliability, which increases overall safety, EFDs have decreased the overall cost of equipping aircraft with state-of-the-art instrumentation. Primary electronic instrumentation packages are less prone to failure than their analogue counterparts. No longer is it ... Read more
- [Principles of Pitot-Static Instruments and Errors](https://flight-study.com/principles-of-pitot-static-instruments-and-errors/): Flight instruments are essential for monitoring an aircraft’s performance and ensuring safe flight operations. Among them, pitot-static instruments are fundamental because they use atmospheric pressure to determine airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed. The pitot-static system supplies pressure information to the Airspeed Indicator (ASI), Altimeter, and Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI), enabling pilots to make informed decisions during all phases of flight. This article explains the working principles of the pitot-static system, the operation of these flight instruments, and the effects of common system blockages and errors. The pitot-static system is a combined system that utilizes the static air pressure and the dynamic ... Read more
- [Weather Theory for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/weather-theory-for-pilots/): Weather is an important factor that influences aircraft performance and flying safety. It is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place with respect to variables such as temperature (heat or cold), moisture (wetness or dryness), wind velocity (calm or storm), visibility (clearness or cloudiness), and barometric pressure (high or low). The term “weather” can also apply to adverse or destructive atmospheric conditions, such as high winds. This section explains basic weather theory and offers pilots background knowledge of weather principles. It is designed to help them gain a good understanding of how weather affects daily flying activities. ... Read more
- [Aviation Weather: Fronts and Thunderstorms](https://flight-study.com/aviation-weather-fronts-and-thunderstorms/): Air masses rarely remain isolated. As they move across the Earth’s surface, they interact with other air masses that may have different temperature and moisture characteristics. These interactions create boundaries known as fronts, which are often associated with changing weather conditions, cloud development, precipitation, and turbulence. Understanding fronts helps pilots anticipate weather changes and make informed flight-planning decisions. As an air mass moves across bodies of water and land, it eventually comes in contact with another air mass with different characteristics. The boundary layer between two types of air masses is known as a front. An approaching front of any type ... Read more
- [Air Masses and Their Influence on Weather](https://flight-study.com/air-masses-and-their-influence-on-weather/): Air masses are large bodies of air with relatively uniform temperature and moisture characteristics. As they move away from their source regions, they influence weather conditions by interacting with the surfaces and atmospheric conditions they encounter. Air masses are classified according to the regions in which they originate. They acquire the temperature and moisture characteristics of their source region. A source region is typically an area in which the air remains relatively stagnant for a period of days or longer. During this time of stagnation, the air mass takes on the temperature and moisture characteristics of the source region. Areas of ... Read more
- [Atmospheric Stability and Weather Formation](https://flight-study.com/atmospheric-stability-and-weather-formation/): Atmospheric stability, moisture, and temperature are closely related and play a major role in the development of clouds, fog, precipitation, and thunderstorms. Understanding how these factors interact helps pilots anticipate weather conditions and recognize potential hazards that may affect flight safety. The stability of the atmosphere depends on its ability to resist vertical motion. A stable atmosphere makes vertical movement difficult, and small vertical disturbances dampen out and disappear. In an unstable atmosphere, small vertical air movements tend to become larger, resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity. Instability can lead to significant turbulence, extensive vertical clouds, and severe weather. Rising ... Read more
- [Wind, Air Currents, and Weather Patterns](https://flight-study.com/wind-air-currents-and-weather-patterns/): Wind and air currents are produced by differences in atmospheric pressure, temperature, and the effects of Earth’s rotation. Understanding how air moves through the atmosphere helps pilots anticipate weather changes and recognize conditions that may affect aircraft performance and flight safety. Air flows from areas of high pressure into areas of low pressure because air always seeks out lower pressure. The combination of atmospheric pressure differences, Coriolis force, friction, and temperature differences in the air near the Earth’s surface causes two kinds of atmospheric motion: convective currents (upward and downward motion) and wind (horizontal motion). Currents and winds are important as ... Read more
- [Altitude Effects on Flight and the Human Body](https://flight-study.com/altitude-effects-on-flight-and-the-human-body/): Altitude has a significant effect on both aircraft performance and human physiology. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure and air density decrease, influencing how an aircraft performs and how the human body functions during flight. Altitude and Flight Altitude affects every aspect of flight, from aircraft performance to human performance. At higher altitudes, where atmospheric pressure is lower, takeoff and landing distances increase while climb rates decrease. When an aircraft takes off, lift is created by the flow of air around the wings. If the air is less dense, a higher true airspeed is required to generate sufficient lift for takeoff; therefore, ... Read more
- [Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure and Altitude](https://flight-study.com/measurement-of-atmospheric-pressure-and-altitude/): Accurate measurement of atmospheric pressure is essential for weather forecasting, altitude determination, and aircraft performance calculations. Pilots rely on pressure information to set flight instruments correctly and to evaluate how atmospheric conditions may affect flight operations. Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure historically was measured in inches of mercury (“Hg) by a mercurial barometer. [Figure 1] Figure 1. Although mercurial barometers are no longer used in the U. S., they are still a good historical reference for where the altimeter setting came from (inches of mercury) The barometer measures the height of a column of mercury inside a glass tube. A ... Read more
- [Coriolis Force and Global Wind Circulation](https://flight-study.com/coriolis-force-and-global-wind-circulation/): Air does not move in straight lines over the Earth’s surface. Its motion is influenced by several forces that shape global wind patterns and weather systems. One of the most important of these forces is the Coriolis force, which results from the rotation of the Earth and plays a key role in atmospheric circulation. In general atmospheric circulation theory, areas of low pressure exist over the equatorial regions and areas of high pressure exist over the polar regions due to differences in temperature. The resulting pressure gradient causes air to flow along the Earth’s surface from the poles toward the equator. ... Read more
- [Weather Theory: Atmosphere and Pressure Basics](https://flight-study.com/weather-theory-atmosphere-and-pressure-basics/): Weather plays a critical role in aviation safety and flight planning. To understand weather phenomena, pilots must first understand the atmosphere, its composition, circulation patterns, and the effects of atmospheric pressure. These fundamental concepts explain how weather develops and how changing atmospheric conditions affect aircraft performance. The atmosphere is a blanket of air made up of a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth and extends nearly 350 miles above its surface. This mixture is in constant motion. If the atmosphere were visible, it might look like an ocean with swirls and eddies, rising and falling air, and waves that travel ... Read more
- [Airspace Classification and ATC System](https://flight-study.com/airspace-classification-and-atc-system/): The two categories of airspace are regulatory and nonregulatory. Within these two categories are four primary types of airspace: controlled, uncontrolled, special use, and other airspace areas. The structure and classification of airspace are designed to accommodate varying levels of aircraft activity, operational requirements, safety considerations, and national interests. The categories and types of airspace are dictated by the complexity or density of aircraft movements, the nature of operations conducted within the airspace, the level of safety required, and national and public interest. Figure presents a profile view of the dimensions of various classes of airspace. Airspace profile In addition, sectional ... Read more
- [Air Traffic Control and the National Airspace System](https://flight-study.com/air-traffic-control-and-the-national-airspace-system/): The primary purpose of the ATC system is to prevent a collision between aircraft operating in the system and to organize and expedite the flow of traffic. In addition to its primary function, the ATC system has the capability to provide (with certain limitations) additional services. The ability to provide additional services is limited by many factors, such as the volume of traffic, frequency congestion, quality of radar, controller workload, higher priority duties, and the pure physical inability to scan and detect those situations that fall in this category. It is recognized that these services cannot be provided in cases in ... Read more
- [Other Airspace Areas and Safety Environments](https://flight-study.com/other-airspace-areas-and-safety-environments/): In addition to controlled, uncontrolled, and special use airspace, the National Airspace System includes several other designated airspace areas and operating environments. These areas support military activities, security requirements, traffic management, parachute operations, and other specialized aviation functions. Pilots should be familiar with these areas and any associated operating procedures before flight. Other airspace areas are designated to support specific aviation activities and services within the National Airspace System. They include: In addition to these airspace areas, pilots should be familiar with several special operating environments and security-related procedures, including: Local Airport Advisory (LAA) An advisory service provided by Flight Service ... Read more
- [Special Use Airspace Classifications](https://flight-study.com/special-use-airspace-classifications/): Special use airspace consists of designated areas established to protect national security, support military operations, facilitate hazardous activities, or alert pilots to unusual aerial operations. These areas may restrict, prohibit, or caution aircraft operations and are depicted on aeronautical charts to help pilots plan and conduct safe flights. Special use airspace (SUA), also known as a special area of operation (SAO), is airspace in which certain activities must be confined or where limitations may be imposed on aircraft operations that are not part of those activities. Certain special use airspace areas can create limitations on the mixed use of airspace. The ... Read more
- [FAA Airspace Classifications and Rules](https://flight-study.com/faa-airspace-classifications-and-rules/): Airspace within the United States is divided into several classifications to promote the safe and efficient movement of aircraft. These classifications determine the level of air traffic control (ATC) services provided, operating requirements, weather minimums, and pilot responsibilities. Airspace is broadly categorized as either controlled airspace, where ATC services are available, or uncontrolled airspace, where pilots operate primarily under established flight rules without direct ATC control. Controlled Airspace Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control (ATC) service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification. Controlled airspace ... Read more
- [Aircraft Performance](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-performance/): The performance or operational information section of the Aircraft Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) contains the operating data for the aircraft; that is, the data pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent, and landing. The use of this data in flying operations is mandatory for safe and efficient operation. Considerable knowledge and familiarity of the aircraft can be gained by studying this material. It must be emphasized that the manufacturers’ information and data furnished in the AFM/POH is not standardized. Some provide the data in tabular form, while others use graphs. In addition, the performance data may be presented on the ... Read more
- [Atmospheric Properties and Flight Performance](https://flight-study.com/atmospheric-properties-and-flight-performance/): The atmosphere plays a critical role in aircraft performance. Variations in atmospheric pressure, temperature, and density affect the aerodynamic and engine forces that determine an aircraft’s ability to take off, climb, cruise, and land. An understanding of the atmosphere and its properties is therefore essential for safe and efficient flight operations. Structure of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as is land and water. However, air differs from land and water in that it is a mixture of gases. It ... Read more
- [Understanding Pressure Altitude and Density Altitude](https://flight-study.com/understanding-pressure-altitude-and-density-altitude/): Aircraft performance is directly affected by the density of the atmosphere in which the aircraft operates. Because atmospheric pressure and temperature rarely match standard conditions, pilots use pressure altitude and density altitude to evaluate the effects of nonstandard atmospheric conditions on aircraft performance. Understanding these concepts is essential for safe flight planning and operation, particularly at high elevations and during periods of high temperature. Pressure Altitude Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane (SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard atmosphere. If the altimeter is set to 29.92 inches ... Read more
- [Principles of Aircraft Flight Performance](https://flight-study.com/principles-of-aircraft-flight-performance/): Performance is a term used to describe the ability of an aircraft to accomplish certain things that make it useful for certain purposes. For example, the ability of an aircraft to land and take off in a very short distance is an important factor to the pilot who operates in and out of short, unimproved airfields. The ability to carry heavy loads, fly at high altitudes at fast speeds, and/or travel long distances is essential for the performance of airline and executive type aircraft. The primary factors most affected by performance are the takeoff and landing distance, rate of climb, ceiling, ... Read more
- [Aircraft V-Speeds and Airspeed Types Explained](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-v-speeds-and-airspeed-types-explained/): Performance speeds are standardized airspeeds used in aircraft operation, certification, and performance planning. They provide pilots with critical information about aircraft performance, limitations, and operating procedures under various flight conditions. Understanding the relationship between the different types of airspeed and the aircraft’s design speeds is essential for safe and efficient flight operations. True airspeed (TAS)—the speed of the aircraft in relation to the air mass in which it is flying. Indicated airspeed (IAS)—the speed of the aircraft as observed on the ASI. It is the airspeed without correction for indicator, position (or installation), or compressibility errors. Calibrated airspeed (CAS)—the ASI reading ... Read more
- [Factors Affecting Takeoff and Landing Performance](https://flight-study.com/factors-affecting-takeoff-and-landing-performance/): The majority of pilot-caused aircraft accidents occur during the takeoff and landing phase of flight. Because of this fact, the pilot must be familiar with all the variables that influence the takeoff and landing performance of an aircraft and must strive for exacting, professional procedures of operation during these phases of flight. Takeoff and landing performance is a condition of accelerated and decelerated motion. For instance, during takeoff an aircraft starts at zero speed and accelerates to the takeoff speed to become airborne. During landing, the aircraft touches down at the landing speed and decelerates to zero speed. The important factors ... Read more
- [Automation Management and Glass Cockpit Safety](https://flight-study.com/automation-management-and-glass-cockpit-safety/): In the GA community, an automated aircraft generally consists of an integrated advanced avionics system that includes a primary flight display (PFD), a multifunction flight display (MFD) including an instrument-certified global positioning system (GPS) with traffic and terrain graphics, and a fully integrated autopilot. This type of aircraft is commonly known as a technically advanced aircraft (TAA). In a TAA aircraft, there are typically two display screens: PFD (left display screen) and MFD. Automation is the single most important advance in aviation technologies. Electronic flight displays (EFDs) have made vast improvements in how information is displayed and what information is available ... Read more
- [Situational Awareness and Workload Management](https://flight-study.com/situational-awareness-and-workload-management/): Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the five fundamental risk elements—flight, pilot, aircraft, environment, and type of operation—that comprise any given aviation situation affecting safety before, during, and after the flight. Monitoring radio communications for traffic, weather discussion, and ATC communication can enhance situational awareness by helping the pilot develop a mental picture of what is happening. Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding of the relative significance of all flight-related factors and their future impact on the flight. When a pilot understands what is going on and has an overview of the ... Read more
- [Aeromedical Factors for Pilots](https://flight-study.com/aeromedical-factors-for-pilots/): It is important for a pilot to be aware of the mental and physical standards required for the type of flying performed. Safe flight operations depend not only on technical skill and aircraft knowledge, but also on the pilot’s physical condition, mental readiness, and ability to recognize physiological limitations. This section provides information on medical certification and on a variety of aeromedical factors related to flight activities. Pilots must understand how health conditions, fatigue, stress, medications, vision, and environmental factors can affect performance and decision-making in flight. A thorough understanding of aeromedical principles helps pilots recognize potential hazards before they become ... Read more
- [ADM in Dynamic Flight Situations](https://flight-study.com/adm-in-dynamic-flight-situations/): A solid approach to decision-making is through the use of analytical models, such as the 5 Ps, 3P, and DECIDE. Good decisions result when pilots gather all available information, review it, analyze the options, rate the options, select a course of action, and evaluate that course of action for correctness. In some situations, there is not always time to make decisions based on analytical decision-making skills. A good example is a quarterback whose actions are based upon a highly fluid and changing situation. He intends to execute a plan, but new circumstances dictate decision-making on the fly. This type of decision-making ... Read more
- [Human Behavior and Pilot Decision-Making](https://flight-study.com/human-behavior-and-pilot-decision-making/): Studies of human behavior have attempted to determine an individual’s predisposition to taking risks and the level of involvement in accidents. In 1951, a study regarding injury-prone children was published by Elizabeth Mechem Fuller and Helen B. Baune of the University of Minnesota. The study consisted of two separate groups of second-grade students. Fifty-five students were considered accident repeaters, while 48 students had no accident history. Both groups came from the same school of 600 students, and their family demographics were similar. The accident-free group demonstrated superior knowledge of safety and was considered industrious and cooperative with others, but they were ... Read more
- [Introduction to Aviation Human Factors](https://flight-study.com/introduction-to-aviation-human-factors/): Why are human conditions such as fatigue, complacency, and stress so important in aviation? These conditions, along with many others, are called human factors. Human factors directly cause or contribute to many aviation accidents and have been documented as a primary contributor in more than 70 percent of aircraft accidents. Typically, human factor incidents and accidents are associated with flight operations, but they have also become a major concern in aviation maintenance and air traffic management. [Figure 1] Over the past several years, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has made the study and research of human factors a top priority by ... Read more
- [Evaluating Flight Hazards and Risk Mitigation](https://flight-study.com/evaluating-flight-hazards-and-risk-mitigation/): Two defining elements of ADM are hazard and risk. Hazard is a real or perceived condition, event, or circumstance that a pilot encounters. When faced with a hazard, the pilot makes an assessment of that hazard based upon various factors. The pilot assigns a value to the potential impact of the hazard, which qualifies the pilot’s assessment of the hazard—risk. Therefore, risk is an assessment of the single or cumulative hazard facing a pilot; however, different pilots see hazards differently. For example, the pilot arrives to preflight and discovers a small, blunt type nick in the leading edge near the midpoint ... Read more
- [Crew Resource Management and SRM](https://flight-study.com/crew-resource-management-and-srm/): Crew Resource Management (CRM) focuses on improving communication, coordination, and decision-making among flight crew members. However, many CRM principles also apply to single-pilot operations. These concepts led to the development of Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM). SRM is defined as the art and science of managing all available resources—both onboard the aircraft and from external sources—available to a single pilot before and during flight to ensure a safe and successful outcome. SRM incorporates the concepts of aeronautical decision-making (ADM), risk management (RM), task management (TM), automation management (AM), controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness, and situational awareness (SA). SRM training helps pilots ... Read more
- [Aviation Risk Management Principles](https://flight-study.com/aviation-risk-management-principles/): The goal of risk management is to proactively identify safety-related hazards and mitigate the associated risks. Risk management is an important component of ADM. When a pilot follows good decision-making practices, the inherent risk in a flight is reduced or even eliminated. The ability to make good decisions is based on experience, education, and both direct and indirect learning. The formal risk management decision-making process involves six steps as shown in Figure 1. Consider automotive seat belt use. In just two decades, seat belt use has become standard practice, placing those who do not wear seat belts outside accepted safety practices, ... Read more
- [Aeronautical Decision-Making Guide](https://flight-study.com/aeronautical-decision-making-guide/): Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a critical aviation skill that helps pilots assess risks, manage workload, and make safe operational decisions during flight. Effective ADM improves situational awareness and reduces the likelihood of human-error-related accidents. ADM is decision-making in the unique environment of aviation. It is a systematic approach pilots use to consistently determine the best course of action. It reflects the actions a pilot chooses based on the most current available information. The importance of learning and understanding effective ADM skills cannot be overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equipment and systems, ... Read more
- [Theories in the Production of Lift](https://flight-study.com/theories-in-the-production-of-lift/): Lift is the aerodynamic force that allows aircraft to overcome gravity and fly. Understanding how Newton’s laws of motion and Bernoulli’s principle contribute to lift generation is essential in the study of aerodynamics. For an aircraft heavier than air to fly, it must generate enough lift to overcome the force of gravity. One of those obstacles, discussed previously, is the resistance to movement called drag. The most challenging obstacle to overcome in aviation, however, is the force of gravity. A wing moving through air generates the force called lift, also discussed in the Lift and Basic Aerodynamics section. When wing lift ... Read more
- [Atmospheric Effects on Aircraft Performance](https://flight-study.com/atmospheric-effects-on-aircraft-performance/): The Earth’s atmosphere affects aircraft performance, flight instruments, and weather conditions. Understanding air pressure, density altitude, temperature, and humidity is essential for safe and efficient flight operations. The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as the seas or the land, but air differs from land and water as it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and no fixed shape. The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium. ... Read more
- [Aircraft Primary and Secondary Flight Controls](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-primary-and-secondary-flight-controls/): Flight control systems allow pilots to control aircraft attitude, direction, and aerodynamic forces during flight. Understanding how primary and secondary flight controls operate is essential for safe and effective aircraft handling. Flight Controls Aircraft flight control systems are divided into primary and secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to control an aircraft safely during flight. Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary control systems and improve the performance characteristics of the airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces. Primary Flight Controls Aircraft control ... Read more
- [Aircraft Flight Control Systems](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-flight-control-systems/): Flight control systems allow pilots to control aircraft attitude, direction, and stability during flight. Understanding how different control systems operate is essential for safe and effective aircraft handling. This section explains the flight control systems pilots use to control aircraft attitude, direction, and aerodynamic forces. Flight control systems and handling characteristics vary depending on the type of aircraft. The most basic flight control system designs are mechanical and date back to early aircraft. They operate with a collection of mechanical parts, such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces of the flight deck controls to the control ... Read more
- [High-Speed Aerodynamics and Compressibility](https://flight-study.com/high-speed-aerodynamics-and-compressibility/): High-speed flight introduces compressibility effects that significantly change aircraft performance and control. Understanding Mach number, shock waves, and aerodynamic behavior at high speeds is essential for safe jet operations. Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow In subsonic aerodynamics, the theory of lift is based upon the forces generated on a body and a moving gas (air) in which it is immersed. At speeds of approximately 260 knots or less, air can be considered incompressible in that, at a fixed altitude, its density remains nearly constant while its pressure varies. Under this assumption, air acts the same as water and is classified as a ... Read more
- [Weight and Balance in Aircraft Operations](https://flight-study.com/weight-and-balance-in-aircraft-operations/): Weight and balance are critical factors that affect aircraft performance, stability, and safety. Understanding how weight distribution and center of gravity (CG) influence flight characteristics is essential for proper aircraft operation. The aircraft’s weight and balance data is important information for a pilot that must be regularly reviewed. Although the aircraft was weighed during the certification process, this information is not valid indefinitely. Equipment changes or modifications affect the weight and balance data. Too often pilots reduce the aircraft weight and balance into a rule of thumb, such as: “If I have three passengers, I can load only 100 gallons of ... Read more
- [Principles of Propeller Aerodynamics and Torque](https://flight-study.com/principles-of-propeller-aerodynamics-and-torque/): Propeller operation is based on aerodynamic principles similar to those of a wing. Understanding how propellers produce thrust and how factors such as blade angle, pitch, and torque effects influence aircraft behavior is essential for safe and efficient flight. The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which the blades are attached. Each propeller blade acts as a rotating wing. As a result of their construction, the propeller blades are like airfoils and produce forces that produce thrust that pulls or pushes the aircraft through the air. The engine furnishes the power needed to rotate ... Read more
- [Aerodynamics of the Aircraft Stall](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamics-of-the-aircraft-stall/): A stall is one of the most critical aerodynamic conditions a pilot must understand. Knowing how stalls occur, how angle of attack affects lift, and how to prevent and recover from stalls is essential for safe flight operations. An aircraft stall results from a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the wing’s surface brought on by exceeding the critical AOA. A stall can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed. Stalls are one of the most misunderstood areas of aerodynamics because pilots often believe an airfoil stops producing lift when it stalls. In a stall, the ... Read more
- [Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamic-forces-in-flight-maneuvers/): Aerodynamic forces change significantly during flight maneuvers such as turns, climbs, and descents. Understanding how lift, weight, thrust, and drag interact during these maneuvers is essential for maintaining control and safe aircraft performance. Forces in Turns If an aircraft were viewed in straight-and-level flight from the front [Figure 1], and if the forces acting on the aircraft could be seen, lift and weight would be apparent: two forces. If the aircraft were banked, lift would no longer act directly opposite weight; instead, it would be inclined in the direction of the bank. A basic truth about turns is that when the ... Read more
- [Aircraft Stability and Control](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-stability-and-control/): Aircraft design characteristics such as stability, maneuverability, and controllability determine how an aircraft responds in flight. Understanding these principles helps pilots maintain control and recognize how aircraft behavior changes under different flight conditions. Each aircraft handles differently because it responds to control inputs in its own way. For example, a training aircraft is quick to respond to control applications, while a transport aircraft feels heavy on the controls and responds to control inputs more slowly.These characteristics are designed to meet specific stability and maneuvering requirements. This section summarizes the more important aspects of an aircraft’s stability, maneuverability, and controllability qualities; how ... Read more
- [Forces Acting on the Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/forces-acting-on-the-aircraft/): Thrust, drag, lift, and weight are the four fundamental forces acting on an aircraft in flight. A clear understanding of how these forces interact—and how to control them using power and flight controls—is essential for safe and efficient flying. By adjusting thrust and the angle of attack, pilots manage the balance between lift and weight, as well as drag and forward motion. This section explains the basic principles of aerodynamics, focusing on how these forces work together to influence aircraft performance and behavior during various flight conditions and maneuvers. The four forces acting on an aircraft in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight are ... Read more
- [Moment and Moment Arm in Aircraft](https://flight-study.com/moment-and-moment-arm-in-aircraft/): Moment and moment arm are fundamental concepts that explain how forces cause an aircraft to rotate about its center of gravity (CG). Understanding how these principles affect balance, stability, and control is essential for pilots when managing aircraft loading and flight performance. A study of physics shows that a body free to rotate will always turn about its center of gravity (CG). In aeronautical terms, the mathematical measure of an aircraft’s tendency to rotate about its CG is called a moment. A moment is defined as the product of a force and the distance from the CG at which that force ... Read more
- [The Three Axes of Flight](https://flight-study.com/the-three-axes-of-flight/): Aircraft motion is controlled around three fundamental axes that pass through the center of gravity (CG). Understanding the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes—and how they relate to roll, pitch, and yaw—is essential for pilots to maintain control and stability during all phases of flight. The axes of an aircraft are three imaginary lines that pass through its center of gravity (CG). These axes can be considered imaginary axles about which the aircraft rotates. They intersect at the CG and are oriented at 90° to each other. The axis running from nose to tail is the longitudinal axis, the axis running from ... Read more
- [Ground Effect and Its Effects on Aircraft Performance](https://flight-study.com/ground-effect-and-its-effects-on-aircraft-performance/): Ground effect is an aerodynamic condition that occurs when an aircraft flies close to the surface, reducing induced drag and increasing lift. Understanding its effects is essential for safe takeoff and landing operations. Ever since the beginning of manned flight, pilots realized that just before touchdown it would suddenly feel like the aircraft did not want to go lower, and the aircraft tends to continue flying without descending. This is due to the air that is trapped between the wing and the landing surface, as if there were an air cushion. This phenomenon is called ground effect. When an aircraft comes ... Read more
- [Aircraft Construction Overview](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-construction-overview/): An aircraft is a device that is used, or intended to be used, for flight according to Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 1, Definitions and Abbreviations. Aircraft categories for certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air, powered-lift, powered parachute, and weight-shift control aircraft. Title 14 CFR part 1 also defines an airplane as an engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of air against its wings. Another commonly used term is advanced avionics aircraft, referring to aircraft equipped with systems such as GPS navigation with moving map displays and ... Read more
- [Aircraft Instrumentation: Moving into the Future](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-instrumentation-moving-into-the-future/): Aircraft instrumentation has evolved significantly with the transition from traditional analog gauges to advanced electronic flight display (EFD) systems. This article explains modern aircraft instrumentation, including primary flight displays (PFD), multifunction displays (MFD), and the three main categories of instruments—performance, control, and navigation—essential for safe flight operations and effective pilot decision-making. Until recently, most GA aircraft were equipped with individual instruments utilized collectively to safely operate and maneuver the aircraft. With the release of the electronic flight display (EFD) system, conventional instruments have been replaced by multiple liquid crystal display (LCD) screens. The first screen is installed in front of the ... Read more
- [Types of Aircraft Construction](https://flight-study.com/types-of-aircraft-construction/): Aircraft construction methods have evolved significantly from early truss frameworks to modern composite structures. This article examines the primary types of aircraft construction—truss, monocoque, semi-monocoque, and composite—and explains how each design influences strength, weight, durability, and performance. Truss Structure The main drawback of a truss structure is its lack of a streamlined shape. In this construction method, lengths of tubing, called longerons, are welded in place to form a well-braced framework. Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to the longerons and give the structure a square or rectangular shape when viewed from the end. Additional struts are needed to resist stress ... Read more
- [Airplane Components and Subcomponents](https://flight-study.com/airplane-components-and-subcomponents/): Airplane design consists of several major components and subcomponents that work together to ensure safe and efficient flight. This article explains the primary structures of an aircraft, including the fuselage, wings, empennage, landing gear, and powerplant, as well as essential systems such as electrical systems, flight controls, and brakes. Major Components Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, most of them have the same major components. [Figure 1] The overall characteristics are largely determined by the original design objectives. Most airplane structures include a fuselage, wings, an empennage, landing gear, and a powerplant. Figure 1. Airplane components Fuselage The ... Read more
- [Lift and Basic Aerodynamics](https://flight-study.com/lift-and-basic-aerodynamics/): Understanding lift and basic aerodynamics is essential for anyone studying aircraft systems, flight operations, or aviation engineering. This article explains the four fundamental forces of flight—lift, weight, thrust, and drag—and introduces key concepts such as aircraft axes and center of gravity (CG), which directly affect stability and control. Four forces act upon an aircraft in relation to straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight. These forces are thrust, lift, weight, and drag. [Figure 1] Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/propeller. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general rule, it is said to act parallel to the longitudinal axis. ... Read more
- [Aircraft Certification and Airworthiness Guide](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-certification-and-airworthiness-guide/): The FAA certifies three types of aviation products: aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers. Each of these products has been designed to a set of airworthiness standards. These standards are parts of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR), published by the FAA. The airworthiness standards were developed to help ensure that aviation products are designed with no unsafe features. Different airworthiness standards apply to the different categories of aviation products as follows: Some aircraft are considered “special classes” of aircraft and do not have their own airworthiness standards, such as gliders and powered lift. The airworthiness standards used ... Read more
- [Aerodynamics of Helicopter Flight](https://flight-study.com/aerodynamics-of-helicopter-flight/): Helicopter flight is governed by the same aerodynamic principles that apply to all aircraft, but the rotating rotor system creates unique forces and behaviors. To operate a helicopter safely and efficiently, pilots must understand how lift, drag, thrust, and weight interact throughout every phase of flight. The rotor blades act as rotating airfoils. As air moves across the blade, pressure changes develop between the upper and lower surfaces. These pressure differences create lift, allowing the helicopter to overcome gravity and remain airborne. At the same time, drag and thrust influence the helicopter’s speed, direction, and overall performance. Unlike fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters ... Read more
- [Straight Climbs and Descents with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/straight-climbs-and-descents-with-analog-instruments/): Straight climbs and descents require careful coordination of pitch, power, airspeed, and trim to maintain precise aircraft control. When flying solely by reference to analog instruments, the pilot uses the attitude indicator, airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, altimeter, and heading indicator together to establish and maintain a constant climb or descent. This section explains how to enter, maintain, and level off from climbs and descents while keeping the airplane properly trimmed and on the desired heading. Climbs For a given power setting and load condition, there is only one attitude that gives the most efficient rate of climb. The airspeed and ... Read more
- [Straight-and-Level Flight with Analog Instruments](https://flight-study.com/straight-and-level-flight-with-analog-instruments/): Straight-and-level flight is the foundation of all instrument flying. To maintain a constant altitude, heading, and airspeed, the pilot must use the attitude indicator, altimeter, vertical speed indicator, airspeed indicator, heading indicator, and turn coordinator together. This section explains how pitch, bank, power, and trim are controlled when flying solely by reference to analog flight instruments, and how small corrections help keep the airplane in stable, coordinated flight. Pitch Control The pitch attitude of an airplane is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the actual horizon. In level flight, the pitch attitude varies with airspeed and load. ... Read more
- [Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying](https://flight-study.com/airplane-attitude-instrument-flying/): Using Analog Instrumentation Attitude instrument flying is defined as the control of an aircraft’s spatial position by using instruments rather than outside visual references. Today’s aircraft come equipped with analog and/or digital instruments. Analog instrument systems are mechanical and operate with numbers representing directly measurable quantities, such as a watch with a sweep second hand. In contrast, digital instrument systems are electronic and operate with numbers expressed in digits. Although more manufacturers are providing aircraft with digital instrumentation, analog instruments remain more prevalent. This section acquaints the pilot with the use of analog flight instruments. Any flight, regardless of the aircraft ... Read more
- [Common Errors in Attitude Instrument Flying using EFD](https://flight-study.com/common-errors-in-attitude-instrument-flying-using-efd/): Fixation Fixation, or staring at one instrument, is a common error observed in pilots first learning to utilize trend indicators. The pilot may initially fixate on the trend indicator and make adjustments with reference to that alone. Trend indicators are not the only tools to aid the pilot in maintaining the desired power or attitude; they should be used in conjunction with the primary and supporting instruments in order to better manage the flight. With the introduction of airspeed tapes, the pilot can monitor airspeed to within one knot. Fixation can lead to attempting to keep the airspeed to an unnecessarily ... Read more
- [Instrument Cross-Check and Scanning Using EFD](https://flight-study.com/instrument-cross-check-and-scanning-using-efd/): Fundamental Skills When first learning attitude instrument flying, it is very important that two major skills be mastered. Instrument crosscheck and instrument interpretation comprise the foundation for safely maneuvering the aircraft by reference to instruments alone. Without mastering both skills, the pilot is not able to maintain precise control of aircraft attitude. Instrument Cross-Check The first fundamental skill is cross-checking (also called “scanning”). Cross-checking is the continuous observation of the indications on the control and performance instruments. It is imperative that the new instrument pilot learn to observe and interpret the various indications in order to control the attitude and performance ... Read more
- [Methods of Attitude Instrument Flying Using EFD](https://flight-study.com/methods-of-attitude-instrument-flying-using-efd/): There are two basic methods utilized for learning attitude instrument flying. They are “control and performance” and “primary and supporting.” These methods rely on the same flight instruments and require the pilot to make the same adjustments to the flight and power controls to control aircraft attitude. The main difference between the two methods is the importance that is placed on the attitude indicator and the interpretation of the other flight instruments. Control and Performance Method Aircraft performance is accomplished by controlling the aircraft attitude and power output. Aircraft attitude is the relationship of its longitudinal and lateral axes to the ... Read more
- [Attitude Instrument Flying Learning Methods](https://flight-study.com/attitude-instrument-flying-learning-methods/): Two primary methods are used to learn attitude instrument flying: the control and performance method and the primary and supporting method. Both methods utilize the same instruments and responses for attitude control. They differ in their reliance on the attitude indicator and interpretation of other instruments. Attitude Instrument Flying Using the Control and Performance Method Aircraft performance is achieved by controlling the aircraft attitude and power. Aircraft attitude is the relationship of both the aircraft’s pitch and roll axes in relation to the Earth’s horizon. An aircraft is flown in instrument flight by controlling the attitude and power, as necessary, to ... Read more
- [Instrument System Inspection for IFR Flight](https://flight-study.com/instrument-system-inspection-for-ifr-flight/): A thorough preflight inspection of the aircraft’s instrument systems is essential for safe and effective instrument flight rules (IFR) operations. Before relying on flight instruments for attitude control and navigation, pilots must verify that pitot-static systems, gyroscopic instruments, navigation radios, and associated power sources are functioning correctly. Even minor discrepancies in instruments such as the altimeter, airspeed indicator, or heading indicator can lead to significant errors in flight, especially in low-visibility conditions. By following a systematic inspection process—from walk-around checks to engine start, taxi, and takeoff verification—pilots can detect faults early, reduce workload in flight, and ensure accurate instrument performance throughout ... Read more
- [IFR Safety Systems](https://flight-study.com/ifr-safety-systems/): Modern instrument flight relies heavily on advanced safety systems designed to reduce pilot workload and prevent accidents such as mid-air collisions and controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). Technologies like Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS), and Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) provide real-time alerts that enhance situational awareness during all phases of flight, especially in low-visibility IFR conditions. Supporting systems such as the radar altimeter, traffic advisory systems, and head-up display (HUD) further improve pilot decision-making by delivering precise altitude, traffic, and flightpath information. Understanding how these systems function and interact is essential for ... Read more
- [Analog Flight Displays](https://flight-study.com/analog-flight-displays/): Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) The HSI is a direction indicator that uses the output from a flux valve to drive the dial, which acts as the compass card. This instrument, shown in Figure 1, combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a glideslope. This gives the pilot an indication of the location of the aircraft with relationship to the chosen course. Figure 1. Horizontal situation indicator (HSI) In Figure 1, the aircraft heading displayed on the rotating azimuth card under the upper lubber line is North or 360°. The course-indicating arrowhead shown is set to 020; the tail indicates the ... Read more
- [The National Airspace System](https://flight-study.com/the-national-airspace-system/): The National Airspace System (NAS) is the complex network of United States airspace, comprising navigation facilities, equipment, services, airports, aeronautical charts, and the regulations that govern them. It represents a vast integration of technology and procedures, including components shared with the military, designed to support everything from light aircraft to high-altitude jet transport. To ensure global consistency, the U.S. NAS aligns with the classification standards set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). This series provides a foundational overview of airspace classification, en route and terminal procedures, and the operational nuances of the NAS. By exploring these topics, pilots will gain ... Read more
- [Flight Support Systems for IFR](https://flight-study.com/flight-support-systems-for-ifr/): Modern instrument flight relies on integrated flight support systems that provide pilots with precise attitude, heading, and air data information when visual references are limited or unavailable. Attitude and Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) and Air Data Computers (ADC) replace traditional gyroscopic instruments and pitot-static devices, combining multiple sensors and processing units to deliver accurate, reliable information essential for safe IFR operations. Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) As aircraft displays have transitioned to new technology, the sensors that feed them have also undergone significant change. Traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have been replaced by Attitude and Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) improving reliability ... Read more
- [Aircraft Gyroscopic Instruments](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-gyroscopic-instruments-2/): Flight without reference to a visible horizon can be safely accomplished by the use of gyroscopic instrument systems and the two characteristics of gyroscopes, which are rigidity and precession. These systems include attitude, heading, and rate instruments, along with their power sources. A gyroscope (gyro) consists of a rotor, a small wheel with most of its mass concentrated around the rim. When the rotor spins at high speed, it becomes rigid and resists changes to its axis of rotation. Attitude and heading instruments operate on the principle of rigidity. For these instruments, the gyro remains rigid in its case and the ... Read more
- [Aircraft Magnetic Compass](https://flight-study.com/aircraft-magnetic-compass/): The Earth is a huge magnet, spinning in space, surrounded by a magnetic field made up of invisible lines of flux. These lines leave the surface at the magnetic North Pole and reenter at the magnetic South Pole. Lines of magnetic flux have two important characteristics: any magnet that is free to rotate aligns with them, and an electrical current is induced into any conductor that cuts across them. Most direction indicators installed in aircraft make use of one of these two characteristics. The Basic Aviation Magnetic Compass One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating direction is the magnetic ... Read more
- [Dynamic Pressure Type Instruments](https://flight-study.com/dynamic-pressure-type-instruments/): Accurate airspeed information is fundamental to safe aircraft operation, especially during takeoff, climb, cruise, approach, and landing. Dynamic pressure type instruments, primarily the Airspeed Indicator (ASI), rely on the pitot static system to measure the aircraft’s movement through the air. Understanding how airspeed is sensed, displayed, and corrected for changing atmospheric conditions is essential for pilots operating under both VFR and IFR conditions. Airspeed Indicator (ASI) An ASI is a differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air through which the aircraft is flying. Dynamic pressure is the difference in the ambient static air pressure and the total, ... Read more
- [Pitot-Static Instruments for IFR Operations](https://flight-study.com/pitot-static-instruments-for-ifr-operations/): Accurate flight instruments are the backbone of safe aircraft operations under both VFR and IFR conditions. This article explains the operation, errors, and practical use of pitot-static instruments, including the sensitive altimeter and vertical speed indicator (VSI), helping pilots understand how pressure, temperature, and system blockages can affect altitude and airspeed readings. Mastery of these instruments is essential for precision flying and compliance with FAA and ICAO standards. Sensitive Altimeter A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level. Principle ... Read more
- [Pitot-Static Systems for IFR Flight Operations](https://flight-study.com/pitot-static-systems-for-ifr-flight-operations/): Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is sensed through an open-end tube pointed directly into the relative wind flowing around the aircraft. The pitot tube connects to the ASI or an air data computer depending on your aircraft’s configuration. Static Pressure Static pressure is also used by the ASI as well as the other pitot static instruments for determining altitude and vertical speed. Static pressure may be sensed at one or more locations on an aircraft. Some may be flush mounted on the fuselage or integrated into the electrically heated pitot tube. [Figure 1] Figure 1. A typical electrically heated pitot-static ... Read more
- [Load Factor in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/load-factor-in-instrument-flight/): Understanding load factor is essential for instrument and visual flight, as it affects aircraft performance, stall behavior, and structural limits. In turns, turbulence, or when performing maneuvers, the aircraft experiences forces beyond its weight, and pilots must recognize how these forces influence handling and safety. Proper knowledge of load factor ensures pilots maintain safe flight envelopes under various operational conditions. Any force applied to an aircraft to deflect its flight from a straight line produces a stress on its structure; the amount of this force is termed load factor. A load factor is the ratio of the aerodynamic force on the ... Read more
- [Slow-Speed Flight Under IFR](https://flight-study.com/slow-speed-flight-under-ifr/): Slow-speed flight under instrument conditions demands precise control of pitch, power, and configuration. Unlike visual flight where external references assist the pilot, instrument flying requires a clear understanding of aerodynamic principles to safely operate near stall speed or in the region of reverse command. During approaches, go-arounds, and maneuvering at reduced airspeeds, the aircraft becomes more sensitive to control inputs and more susceptible to rapid performance changes. Understanding how lift, drag, and thrust interact in this regime is essential for safe and accurate instrument flying. Anytime an aircraft is flying near the stalling speed or the region of reverse command, such ... Read more
- [The Drag Curve](https://flight-study.com/the-drag-curve/): When the effects of parasite drag and induced drag are plotted against airspeed, the resulting line is called the drag curve. Parasite drag increases as airspeed increases because airflow resistance over the aircraft surfaces becomes greater. Induced drag behaves in the opposite manner; it increases as airspeed decreases because a higher angle of attack is needed to support the aircraft’s weight. Aircraft performance charts are presented in two common ways. Jet aircraft usually use thrust versus drag graphs, while propeller-driven aircraft use power versus drag graphs. Since this article focuses on propeller aircraft, the discussion refers to power required rather than ... Read more
- [Lift in Instrument Flight](https://flight-study.com/lift-in-instrument-flight/): Lift always acts in a direction perpendicular to the relative wind and to the lateral axis of the aircraft. The fact that lift is referenced to the wing, not to the Earth’s surface, is the source of many errors in learning flight control. Lift is not always “up.” Its direction relative to the Earth’s surface changes as the pilot maneuvers the aircraft. The magnitude of the force of lift is directly proportional to the density of the air, the area of the wings, and the airspeed. It also depends upon the type of wing and the AOA. Lift increases with an ... Read more

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